Centre on Integrated Rural Development for Asia and the Pacific (CIRDAP)

ASIA-PACIFIC JOURNAL OF

RURAL DEVELOPMENT

Abstracting Service

Asia- Pacific Journal of Rural Development ( APJORD)

Vol.1, July 1991, No. 1

Agriculture and Rural Development in the Asia-Pacific Region: Present Scenario and Future Outlook

AZM Obaidullah Khan

Abstract:

The paper very succinctly describes the positive aspects of agricultural development in the Asia-Pacific region, urges not to be complacent with the better performance achieved in the 1980s, particularly with respect to record production of cereal harvest, high production of livestock and building of a reasonably good food stocks, and finally proposes a set of actions for maintaining the prosperity in the 1990s and distributions of its benefit to the poor and the disadvantaged.

South Asian: Those who are Left Behind-Issues and Perspectives

Nurul Islam

Abstract:

South-Asia contains 46.4 percent of the poor of the developing world and the large majority of them live in rural areas. The rural poor are predominantly small and landless farmers, the extreme poor amongst often them do mot have access to food providing minimum nutritional requirements. The mainstream thinking, regarding appropriate development strategy for alleviating poverty in these areas, seems to be veering around to the position that both economic growth and increasing social expenditures to deal directly with certain aspects of poverty are needed. This present paper concerns not so much with reducing inequality as with alleviating poverty. The paper with this end in view examines the income distribution in South-Asian countries. It suggests three inter-related sets of measures to alleviate poverty in South Asia: (1) necessity to stimulate the economic growth and at the same time to ensure that the poor participate in the benefits from the process of growth; (2) necessity to expand the social expenditure of the government on the broad-based improvement of the health, education, sanitation and nutrition of the entire-population; and (3) necessity to ensure direct measures either to transfer income or food (the most basic of the minimum human needs) or to undertake employment programmes, designed for the very poor to provide them access to minimum income.

Gender and Rural Poverty in Asia: Implications for Agricultural Project Design and Implementation

Constantina Safilios-Rothschild

Abstract:

In Asia, gender and rural poverty are inter-linked in different ways. Gender appears to be a principal criterion for the allocation of scarce resources in communities and households. The effects of intra-household and societal gender inequities leading to women’s lesser access to food, health care, education and skills for productive employment are significant with regard to poverty creation and its perpetuation. Gender inequities are also exhibited in the process of development thinking.

In Bangladesh, Pakistan and India, the trends in respect of continuing intra-household gender inequities are reflected in the allocation of scarce resources. Women are less endowed in respect productive assets that could enhance the returns to their labour.

Women constitute the central agents to the success of poverty alleviation efforts since their income meets the basic domestic needs. There is a lack of data regarding women’s contribution in agriculture. The government and donor organizations are not mainstreaming women in agricultural and other rural development programme. In most countries, women farmers are bypassed by agricultural extension.

Poverty and Gender Issues

Alexandra Stephens

Abstract:

Rural women have often been the victims of development processes and outcomes, as evident from the increasing duration of their work-day, the widening gap between male and female incomes and gradual trend towards their greater responsibility in the management of household affairs. In Asia and the South Pacific, they hardly get recognition as farmers or are paid as such, although half of their working hours is involved in food production. Their health is affected by working longer than men. Lack of medical care, food and social services results in higher mortality rates for women.

Women become the principal victims to environmental degradation. Women farmers seldom get the opportunity of farm management training. In South Asia, schooling for girls is very limited. They are highly constrained in upward mobility due to their low education and access to information. Hence, their contribution in decision-making is vitally hampered.

Women get very negligible access to the economic means, when compared to men. Their participation in rural organization is poor. In the developing world, women farmers are almost outside the ambit of high-tech agricultural scenario.

A women farmer is, generally, in darkness about land-use planning. Women are not adequately involved in the recent efforts towards post-harvest loss reduction at the farm and village levels. The concepts of food standards and quality control are beyond the reach of rural women.

FAO’s Action Plan centres round four spheres of life, namely, civil status, economic, social and decision-making. Each sphere contains its individual strategy for enhancing women’s status at each level of the society.

The author concludes that women-themselves should rise to the occasion and take necessary steps to redress the problem of gender imbalance.

Food Policy and Rural Poverty Alleviation in India

R. Thamarajakshi

Abstract:

Food policies determine the ‘exchange entitlement mappings’ of rural labour, the most deprived categories of the population, and thus the state of nutrition and poverty in an economy. The effectiveness of food policies can be traced through the nature of their implications for the rural labour market. This paper attempts to examine the effect of food policies in India on the rural poor with special reference to agricultural labour in the post-seventy period when technological change got established in two important cereals viz., wheat and paddy. India has a long experience of Government intervention in foodgrain market and has been supporting farmers and providing food security to the poor. She has also been successfully implementing wage employment programmes for rural labour besides income generation programmes for the poor. It is observed that totality of factors, such as the introduction of high yielding varieties, expansion of irrigation, investments in infrastructure, delivery of credit and critical inputs on easy terms and a good extension service, along with a supportive price policy have made possible a sustained growth in the production and productivity of agriculture in general and of wheat and paddy in particular with consequential decline in cereal barter terms of trade in the last two decades. Growth in agricultural production has been accompanied by growth in employment in agriculture although employment elasticity in that sector has been less than unity and is declining. Further, the rural employment programmes of the Government have not only been generating substantial quantum of additional employment but also improving the bargaining power of the rural labour. As a result, real wages have risen, The Public Food Distribution System has been making special efforts to cover remote and for-flung areas and distributing foodgrains to tribal population and the target groups of rural wage employment programmes at subsidised rates Cereal prices have been moderately stable. The dally status unemployment rate in rural areas has shown a decline in this period. Government’s agricultural production and price policies, rural employment policies, public distribution policies and most importantly the overall growth of the economy have all combined to bring down rural poverty in a significant measure.

Monitoring and Evaluation Mechanism of Agrarian Reform and Rural Development in Selected Asian Countries

Durga Prasad Paudyal

Abstract:

Agrarian Reform and Rural Development programmes play a key role in the countries of Asia-Pacific region. The present sectoral approach to assess the impact of these programmes, give inadequate and often partial pictures, because a number of ministries/departments and their field level agencies are involved in the implementation. Therefore, there is a need to design a comprehensive M&E mechanism at the national level with proper linkages with the concerned agencies at national, sub-national and project levels. This article explains the existing M&E mechanism of four Asian countries and argues that the M&E mechanism development by CIRDAP, may generate a better data-base.

Asia- Pacific Journal of Rural Development ( APJORD)

Vol.II, July 1992, No. 1

How Poor are Women in Rural India?

A.K.Rajuladevi

Abstract:

Women constitute and increasing percentage of the poor and households headed by women suffer severe deprivation, and lack access to resources necessary to improve their lot. The process of proletarianisation and pauperization, caste structure etc, play important roles in determining female participation in work; female work participation rate is highest not only amongst the poorest households but also among the scheduled castes and scheduled tribes.

This paper, through review of relevant literature shows how poverty focused strategies mostly provide channels through which new ties of dependence and exploitation are established. It discusses further, that as the economic status of poor women’s households decreases, they combine domestic work with wage work. It analyses those regional factors which act as powerful determinants o rural household strategies for the deployment of female labour other than caste and household economic status. This paper also examines whether the increase in rural women’s labour force participation is a sign of deepening poverty which has forced them into the labour market for survival or an indication of new economic opportunities which are forcing households to move against the cultural milieu and send them out to work. Finally, the paper focuses on gender based inequalities in access to employment opportunities and explores the intra-household gender discriminatory practices in the distribution of food, health care and education within poor households.

Participatory Planning for Rural Development and Disaster Management in Bangladesh

Hiroyuki Nishimura

Abstract:

Based on empirical studies conducted in several villages in Bangladesh, the paper attempts to identify the types of disasters that occurred in the past and the effects of such disasters, especially floods on agricultural activities, It them goes on to examine how disaster management could be incorporated into rural planning focusing on the need to adopt a participatory approach to make such planning effective.

Managing Development Through Institution Building

Salehuddin Ahmed

Abstract:

Impact of various efforts for improving the socio-economic conditions of the poor in the developing countries can be maximized through proper management and implementation of development programmes/projects. Effective project management and implementation are also crucial for sustainable development. Institutions, which encompass entities at the local level, community level, regional level, national level and in parastatals, project management units and so on are integral parts of project management and implementation. However, despite strong statements about the essential role of institutional development, and the realization of its potential contribution to development efforts, the issue of institutional development has received relatively little attention by policy makers, planners and implementators of programme. This paper presents some issues on institutional development which are currently being focused on. In the context of developing countries, institutional development should not be looked at merely from a technical point of view and should not be taken merely with a distinct project entity. An interdisciplinary approach to institutional development, not a partial and iterative approach, is required for efficient management of development programmes/projects.

Mining Resettlement and rural Development in Malaysia

Hassan Naziri Khalid

Abstract:

This article focuses on the formation of mining resettlements in tin-rich Kinta Valley Malaysia, comparing this type of resettlement with other types of resettlement schemes under the rural development programmes in that country. Mining resettlements are set up as compensation from mining companies to villagers whose lands are acquired for mining of tin. As these mining resettlements are under taken by private ventures, they are set up in an adhoc manner with little consideration for humanitarian needs, in contrast to the government sponsored resettlement schemes. Mining resettlement could be improved by coordinating the efforts of the mining companies and government agencies carrying out rural development programmes.

Farmers’ Use of Communication Media in Adopting Agricultural Technologies-a farm level study in Bangladesh

M.A.Kashem, A. Halim and M. Qulfikar Rahman

Abstract:

The present study was designed to analyze the relative contribution of various communication media in the transfer of modern agricultural technologies to farmer. Data were collected from a sample of 150 farmers from two villages under Sadar upazila of Mymensingh district from 23 April to 25 May 1991. A weighed score was used in order to compute the relative use of different communication media. The frequently used media were Block Supervisors, neighbour, veterinary hospital, on-farm trial, radio etc. in adopting different agricultural technologies. However, individual contact media were also used. Agricultural knowledge, competence as farmer and age were significantly related to the adoption of rice technologies; innovativeness and behaviour intent were significantly related to livestock production; behaviour intent was significantly related to fish culture; and agricultural knowledge, competence as farmer and age were significantly related to overall agricultural technology adoption.

Asia- Pacific Journal of Rural Development ( APJORD)

Vol.II, December 1992, No. 2

Can and Should Social Science Disaster Research Knowledge and Findings from Developed Societies be Applied in Developing Societies?

E.L.Quarantelli

Abstract:

The paper considers the extent to which social science research findings about disasters primarily derived from developed countries can and should be applied in developing societies. It is first noted that the conceptual distinction made between developed and developing social systems may lead to an underestimation of the existing capabilities for preparing for and responding to disasters in developing nations. The general differences between organizational structures in developed and developing societies are then noted because organizations everywhere are the prime actors in disaster preparedness and response. However, most of the paper discusses six major observations with respect to the extent to which empirically based research findings about the behaviour of organizations in highly urbanized and industrialized societies can be extrapolated to or applied in developing social systems. The paper concludes that it is not a matter of either/or, and that there are certain social features in developing societies which might lessen the necessity of importing disaster social technology from developed countries.

Community-Based Resource Management as a Strategy for Sustainable Development

Francisco P. Fellizar, JR

Abstract:

Community-Based Resource Management (CBRM), a strategy aimed at achieving sustainable development, has been conceived as a process by which the people are given the opportunity and/or responsibility to manage and utilize resources with a concern for future needs. CBRM is practiced in many countries including the Philippines. Through a presentation of CBRM undertakings in the Philippines, the paper attempts to identify the features of CBRM, focusing on the experience of such projects. The paper concludes by identifying the elements of CBMB and factors critical to its adoption and implementation.

Subsistence farming in Asia: Income and Resource Allocation

Salehuddin Ahmed and Shafiqur Rahman

Abstract:

Most of the households in the rural area of the Asia-Pacific region operate at a subsistence level. In as much as the basic decision making unit in the rural sectors of these countries is the household, an understanding of its resource and income allocation pattern is a necessary prerequisite for the formulation of policies and strategies of rural development. The policies and programmes of agricultural development pursued so far not have been directed towards the receiving and delivery mechanisms of the agricultural sector as well as the small and marginal farmers. Empirical evidence has indicated that the subsistence farmers have derived less benefits from agricultural development programmes compared to the medium and the large farmers. The study of rural subsistence farm households therefore becomes necessary to ensure that government programmes for agricultural transformation, including programmes for the creation of non-farm employment are based on empirical evidence. This has been attempted in this paper through the analysis of income and expenditure behaviour of farm households and a discussion of the allocative efficiency of production inputs.

Asia- Pacific Journal of Rural Development ( APJORD)

Vol.III, July 1993, No. 1

Development of Rural Industries and Transformation of China’s Rural Economy

Momtaz Uddin Ahmed

Abstract:

The paper examines the contributions of rural industries in the process of modernizing transformation of the Chinese rural economy. Rural industries in China experienced phenomenal growth, ranging between 20-25 percent in the post-reform period and played a crucially important role in absorbing surplus rural labour, raising employment and income status of rural households and in facilitating the development of a modern industrial base in rural townships. The economic dynamism displayed by rural industries in China has been a consequence of the encouragement provided by the government to the development of market economy and private enterprise systems in the post-reform years. The Chinese experience of rural industrial development seems instructive for the agriculture dominated developing Asian countries which are grappling with problems of surplus labour absorption, raising income and living standards of the rural poor, and keeping rural-urban migration within reasonable limits.

A Framework for Analysis of Macro-Micro Transmission Mechanisms in Bangladesh: some preliminary considerations

Mustafa K. Mujeri, Quazi Shahabuddin, Salehuddin Ahmed

Abstract:

Since independence, Bangladesh has been subjected to policy interventions and shocks that profoundly influenced its macro-economy and future growth prospects. During recent years, the pursuit of structural adjustments (SA) as an integral component of macro-economic policy has raised a number of issues relating particularly to consideration of equity and alleviation of poverty. The assessment and analysis of the impact of SA on poverty requires the establishment of links between such policies and the welfare of households involving analytical framework of macro-micro transmission mechanisms. This article examines the major conduits of macro-economic transmissions in Bangladesh and presents the preliminary outline of a general equilibrium model to analyze the issues and indicates the data and information requirements for its empirical implementation.

Questions of Gender in Development Planning: Women’s Experiences in a New Settlement of the Mahaweli Project in Sri Lanka

Joke Schrijvers

Abstract:

Women settlers in a new settlement of the prestigious Mahaweli River Development Scheme in Sri Lanka felt that they were living “like wild animals in a jungle.” Deprived of the support of their relatives and without direct access to the means of production, they became dependent upon their husbands. Violence in the scheme increased considerably. Yet these women should not be seen as helpless victims of a development planning based on biased gender conceptions. The thoughts and actions of female settlers, however restricted and invisible from the outside, to some degree co-determined the actual outcome of the planning. What was their impact, and what were the limitations of their activities behind the screens? How to support women as active participants in their own right, from the very start of a development intervention? In order to answer such questions new research methodologies are needed, which combine gender-awareness with a bottom-up, dynamic, actor-oriented perspective.

Asia- Pacific Journal of Rural Development ( APJORD)

Vol. III, December 1993, No. 2

People’s Participation: Some Methods for Measuring Intensities Across the Development sectors

Lokendra Prasad Poudyal, Karl E. Weber

Abstract:

Participation encompasses assorted features of work. Some of these ate intensive, while others are moderate or peripheral in terms of their conduciveness to the achievement of set goals. They pertain to specific stages of the planning process, namely, decision making, implementation benefit sharing, or evaluation. These distinct features of work influence participation differently. Some works are induced by family pressure, while others are backed by community needs. Works also differ according to their occurrence; some relate to singular activities, while others are related to recurrent activities. Examining the intensity of participation under these diverse conditions is methodically difficult. As great as the difficulties are, as strong is the necessity of measuring intensity as it could provide a basis for planning participatory development.

This paper discusses a few methods of measuring participation. These methods are empirically appraised to see their applicability across different sectors of development. The results obtained from such appraisal are verified with qualitative conditions that prevailed at the field. Those verifications revealed that for participation to become more operational, specific approaches commensurate with the nature of work are required. In this vein, adoption of a sectoral approach to participation appears sensible.

Integrated Rural Development-Problems in Methodology and Institutional Environment

Dirk Van Dusseldorp

Abstract:

The concept of Integrated Rural Development (IRD) has remained on the stage of development fashions for a long period of time. Its success is difficult to measure due to the ambiguous way in which IRD is defined, the numerous and often conflicting objectives it has to realize and the lack of conceptual clarity in its preparation and implementation. The main purpose of this paper is to highlight some of the basic problems encountered in IRD and draw some lessons from past experiences.

The paper begins with an overview of the historical background of IRD. Then the intellectual basis on which every planned development effort has to be based, namely the dynamic and integrated analysis of the situation that has to be changed purposefully and directionally is discussed. As this analysis has to give an insight into the causalities (the processes) that led to the present situation (the theories in planning), the problems of multi-and inter disciplinary research that should provide such an analysis are identified. A discussion of the institutional environment in which the IRD programmes have to operate follows focusing on coordination, decentralization and participation.

The view that the results of planned development activities, such as the preparation of plans, are only administrative devices for a legitimate allocation of scarce resources and to organize action that is accepted by all involved is compared with another view where planned development is seen as an arena for the struggle for scarce resources. Finally, the paper indicates some lessons that can be learnt from past experiences in the field of IRD.

The North-South Economic Interaction and the Environment

S. Mansoob Murshed

Abstract:

The global nature of environmental problems requires the cooperation of many countries and national governments to find solutions that are acceptable to both the North and the South. International environmental policies suggested include, among others, the payment of natural debt, debt for nature swaps, globally trade able permit schemes in green house gas emissions, and the use of trade policy to promote environmental goals. This article analyses North-South interaction within this context, cautioning that the concern for the environment could become an additional weapon for protectionism and for further penalizing the South. The South is effectively decoupled from meaningful participation in the international economic system. The environment is an exception. The cooperation of the South in solving environmental problems will be forthcoming only if other areas of interest to the South, such as trade and transfers, are also addressed.

Asia- Pacific Journal of Rural Development ( APJORD)

Vol. IV, July & December 1994, No. 1 & 2

Land Tenure and Production Organization of Agriculture in China, Vietnam and Lao PDR

S.A. Subramani

Abstract:

This article is based on studies commissioned by FAO in 1991-92, to examine the patterns of land tenure and production organization in the former centrally planned economies of China, Vietnam and Lao PDR, and on the proceedings of the FAO-CIRDAP workshop on land tenure and production organization of agriculture in China, Lao PDR, Vietnam and some selected countries of Asia, held in Bangkok, Thailand from 20-22 April 1993. Arranged in four sections, the first section of the article provides an overview of the tenurial system and production organization of China, Vietnam and Lao PDR, and the other three sections present the country specific studies.

Development from Within-A Rethinking on an Alternative Development Path

K.V.Sundaram

Abstract:

The article presents the view that in the context of current macro economic policies, the role of the state in local and regional development is being reduced and the domain of responsibility of the people and the local institutions is being increased. The regional and local communities therefore must find their own development centres of gravity to respond to the new policy changes.The concept of Integrated Rural Development (IRD) has remained on the stage of development fashions for a long period of time. Its success is difficult to measure due to the ambiguous way in which IRD is defined, the numerous and often conflicting objectives it has to realize and the lack of conceptual clarity in its preparation and implementation. The main purpose of this paper is to highlight some of the basic problems encountered in IRD and draw some lessons from past experiences.

Participatory Development-The Community Information and Planning System (CIPS) Management Experience of CIRDAP

S. Narayan

Abstract:

Beneficiary participation in project design, execution and monitoring is considered to be a crucial factor in project sustainability. The methodologies adopted for involving beneficiaries in project activities vary widely across countries, sectors and projects. A methodology for participatory development pioneered by CIRDAP, the Community Information and Planning System (CIPS), focused on generating participation of the rural poor in the development process through a wide spectrum of interrelated activities which include participatory data collection, planning and implementation of productive activities. The initial testing of this model by CIRDAP in all its eleven member countries has been followed by its application in the action research projects initiated to achieve socio-economic development in target villages. This article reviews the CIPS methodology with reference to the CIRDAP action research projects. Focusing on implementation aspects. It seeks to identify the extent of adherence to the CIPS methodology and the possible reasons for country specific variations in project management and implementation, and to draw conclusions relevant for future participatory projects.

Local Orientation of Rural Small Scale Industries: an empirical study from Ciomas Subdistrict West Java, Indonesia

Tulus Tambunan

Abstract:

Based on a sample survey of nine village in Ciomas subdistrict West Java province, Indonesia, the article examines the degree of local orientation of rural small scale industries (RSSIs) in terms of consumption and production linkages with the local (rural) economy. It addresses two hypotheses: (1) RSSIs in a less developed rural area or in a village further away from a city have a higher degree of local linkages than those in a more developed rural area or in a village closer to a city; and (2) agriculture is the most important local source of raw material and demand for RSSIs.

Impact of the Integrated Rural Development Programme on the Rural Poor-A Case Study of the Cuttack District in India

Krishna Chandra Rath and Jayant Kumar Routray

Abstract:

The Integrated Rural Development Programme is one of the major programmes implemented by the Government of India to alleviate rural poverty. This study is an attempt to analyze the impact of the IRDP on the rural poor in a coastal district (Cuttack) of Eastern India and to bring out some of the important issues related to the success and failure of the programme. Some remedial measures are also suggested to make the programme more effective. The study reveals that the subsidy component of the IRDP package is a strong and possibly the only motivating factor for both beneficiaries and (IRDP) officials in implementing the programme. The target population is neither made aware of nor actively involved in, the process for delivering inputs and services. In view of this, the recommendations proposed to strengthen the IRDP include building awareness and information dissemination, sanctioning capital directly to the beneficiaries to enable them to purchase the required inputs and invest appropriately, withdrawing the subsidy component from all the projects, strengthening the monitoring system, and taking into account the viability of the project and entrepreneurship quality of the target groups for extending financial support.

Asia- Pacific Journal of Rural Development ( APJORD)

Vol. V, July 1995, No. 1

Gender Aspects of Irrigation Management: the Chhattis Mauja Irrigation System in Nepal

Margreet Zwarteveen & Nita Neupane

Abstract:

Although irrigated farming in the head end of the Chhattis Mauja irrigation system in Nepal is increasingly the responsibility of women, female farmers do not formally participate in the schemes organization. However, women’s non-involvement as formal members in meetings, and the lack of female representation in the organization does not seem to negatively affect their access to irrigation services. On the contrary, women succeed extremely well in getting their irrigation needs accommodated. This is due partly to the very fact that they are not formally participating in the scheme’s management; this allows them to take more water than they are entitled to and to contribute less labour to maintenance than they should without being punished. Because women are not recognized as members, the organization faces difficulties in enforcing its rules on women. At the same time, female farmers cunningly make use of the prevailing gender ideology, although it does not reflect realities as perceived by women themselves, does strengthen them in their negotiations for more water and in their attempts to minimize their contributions to the scheme’s maintenance.

Gender in Agriculture: an Asian Perspective

B Bhattacharya and G Jhansi Rani

Abstract:

The increasing number of women who are joining the agricultural work force in Asia has underscored the urgency of making agricultural policy research and extension more gender sensitive. This article attempts to present the realities of women’s involvement in, and contribution to, the agricultural sector by an analysis of the gender roles in Asian agriculture and by building a profile of farming women by highlighting their agricultural workload, task range, wage disparity and role intricacies. Through a review of agricultural policies and programmes it attempts to bring out the inherent gender blindness and male orientation in policy development, research and extension undertakings, tracing the roots of such gender biases to attitudinal, conceptual, and methodological limitations. It is suggested that both macro and micro level information be synthesized into a database to sensitize policy makers and programmes to gender issues in agriculture.

Women Farmers’ Worsening World: can Gender Analysis Help?

Alexandra Stephens

Abstract:

A death of data and misleading information, when data are available, mask the disadvantaged position of women farmers and the reality of their lives. While the database has to be improved to reflect the reality of their lives ad to justify fundamental changes in the way resources are assigned, used and distributed, of equal importance is to see women in relation to men through gender analysis. In general, the Women in Development (WID) approach of implementing women specific projects often approved by ‘soft’ criteria ignoring market values and prices further marginalized women and left male dominance intact. The Gender and Development (GAD) approach attempts to “mainstream” women by an analysis of gender specific issues including the division of labour, decision making, access to and control over resources which are factors of production, and the constraints around production (and reproduction) by men and women. This article elaborates these issues.

Twenty Years of WID and Rural Women of Nepal

Meena Acharya

Abstract:

Empowerment is a process which enables women to meet both their practical and strategic needs. The process of empowerment must increase women’s access to economic opportunities and resources; increase women’s political power; raise women’s consciousness about the symptoms and causes of oppression; and strengthen women’s self confidence. Based on two major sources of information, this article reviews the extent of empowerment of Nepalese women, with reference to the four dimensions of empowerment identified above.

Rural Women, Poverty and Development in Pakistan

Shahnaz Kazi

Abstract:

Despite gender specific problems of access to social and productive resources, the concern with poverty has mainly focused on the extent and incidence of poverty and has implicitly assumed that all members of a poor family are equally disadvantaged. However, there is increasing evidence that women and girls in poor households bear a disproportionately high share of the burden of poverty. Their deprivation is due to their lower endowment of land and productive assets, discrimination in the labour market, and limited access to social services. Government plans and policies, which have incorporated a special focus on women since the late seventies, have been limited in scope and have failed to address the critical constraints to raising their productivity and improving their access to education and health services. This article reviews the available information on gender differences in intra- household distribution of resources including nutrition and health care, differential access of rural women to education and employment. In concludes with an assessment of recent initiatives that have been taken to extend productive and social resources to women.

Rural Women and the National Renovation Process in Vietnam

Le Thi

Abstract:

The “Doi Moi” or “ economic renovation” introduced in Vietnam at the end of 1986 has had a strong impact on economic production, as well as on the lives of the people of all strata in the country. The change to a market economy resulted, among others, in the households becoming independent economic units. Rural areas have witnessed many positive changes; living standards of many have improved. These developments have also had an impact on rural women. This article attempts to describe the repercussions of the economic reforms on their status, ability to cope with a new system of production organization health, education and training.

Is Women’s Loan Repayment Behavior Different than Men’s? An Analysis of Gender Differentials in Loan Repayment in Four CIRDAP Member Countries

Fahmeeda Rahman Wahab

Abstract:

Although credit is considered to be an important catalyst in poverty alleviation, the majority of the rural poor have limited access to institutional credit. Most disadvantaged in this request are women. In order to design viable credit programmes for rural women, it is necessary to ascertain the critical factors which are likely to contribute to ensuring adequate access to credit and timely repayment. This article attempts to identify these critical factors focusing specifically on whether, and to what extent, factors determining loan repayment behaviour of women differ from those of men. The article provides empirical evidence from four countries of South and Southeast Asia, that considerable differences in loan repayment behaviour exist between men and women as well as between people belonging to different sub-classes within the poor. The article then suggests directions in policy reform which could accommodate these differences in order to facilitate the access to institutional credit by rural poor women.

Integrated Approach Towards Small Family Norm, Income Generation and Empowerment of Rural Women-A Case Study

G.N.Reddy, A. Rizwana and C.K.Gariyali

Abstract:

Empowerment of women, especially in traditional societies is a slow process requiring simultaneous action on many fronts. Activities aimed at overcoming physical isolation of women and encouraging their participation in community based projects as well as increasing their awareness can have positive impacts on their status. At the same time, attitudinal changes in the community to wards women through a process of consultation and conscientization is also important to this process. This article presents a case study based on an action research project titled Comprehensive Population and Family Planning Activities in Integrated Rural Development initiated by CIRDAP, where project activities had the effect of bringing about major changes in the status of women through a process of empowerment.

Asia- Pacific Journal of Rural Development ( APJORD)

Vol. V, December 1995, No. 2

Institutional Development for Managing a Rice Processing Complex in the Philippines

Letecia N. Damole & Ebel Wickramanayake

Abstract:

One of the most important issues in integrated rural development projects which contain physical infrastructures is sustainability. Hence, the Integrated Jalajala Rural Development Project in the Philippines incorporated an institutional development component in the project, jointly undertaken by a government and two non-government organizations, to form a local level organization and strengthen its capability to manage a rice processing complex. This paper assesses the immediate effects of the institutional development activities on building organizational capability and shows that the achievements are below the expected level.

The Applications of Geographical Information Systems (GIS) in the Management of Rubber Smallholdings: a case study of Malaysia

Ruslan Rainis and Abdul Halim Hashim

Abstract:

The planning and management of rubber smallholdings require a vast amount of spatial as well as attribute data The existing manual methods of data handling can no longer cope with these requirements. The recent advances in geographical information systems (GIS) provide an efficient tool for data input., management, analysis, and display of spatially related data suitable for the planning and management of rubber smallholdings, In this paper, three examples of GIS applications in the planning and management of rubber small holdings are described: smallholder information retrieval/ query, the management of replantation programme applications evaluation, and monitoring the potential impacts of future urbanization on smallholdings, Problems encountered during the project are also described

Participatory Process and Watershed Management-A Study of the Shiwalik Foothill villages in Northern India

Swarn Lata Arya and J.S. Samra

Abstract:

The present paper aimed at critically reviewing and analyzing four selected community based watershed development projects in the foothill villages of Shiwaliks in Northern India with a vie to identifying people’s participation in them and drawing lessons useful for securing their involvement. The linkages between common resources (CPR), private property resources (PPR), and quality of life (income levels) were analyzed using the statistical clustering technique. The characterization of village economies and their present status revealed the differences between actively participated watersheds, planned and managed by the communities (Sukhomairiand Bunga) and the others under a bureaucratic setup (Chowki and Tibbi). In Sukhomajri and Bunga, the cropping pattern changed in favour of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) barseem (Trifolium planning and management of rubber smallholdings require a vast amount of spatial as well as attribute data The existing manual methods of data handling can no longer cope with these requirements. The recent advances in geographical information systems (GIS) provide an efficient tool for data input., management, analysis, and display of spatially related data suitable for the planning and management of rubber smallholdings, In this paper, three examples of GIS applications in the planning and management of rubber small holdings are described: smallholder information retrieval/ query, the management of replantation programme applications evaluation, and monitoring the potential impacts of future urbanization on smallholdings, Problems encountered during the project are also described.

An Assessment of the Training and Visit Model of Agricultural Extension Work in Bangladesh

Mohammad Hassanullah and Muzaffer Ahmad

Abstract:

The Training and Visit Model (TVM) was introduced in 1976 in Rajshahi, Bangladesh as a part of the worldwide effort to increase the effectiveness of agricultural extension services in the developing countries. Due to high operational cost, the TVM became a controversial issue and one recent evaluation found it far less efficient in trasferring technologies than what was expected earlier. In this article the TVM of agricultural extension work was assessed in terms of its manifestations over environmental and organizational variables which exhibited significant influences on the performance of an agricultural extension organization (AEO) as compared to the Advisory Service Model (ASM) and the integrated Extension Model (IEM) of extension work. The sample of the study constituted 887 farmers and 437 service personnel. Findings revealed that the TVM was introduced in an ecologically disadvantaged but socio-politically advantaged environment. Implementation of the TVM in its first phase failed to increase or decrease the magnitudes of those variables which influence performance of an AEO either positively of negatively as compared to the other two models. As a result, performance of an AEO under both the TVM and the ASM was similar inspite of the fact that the TVM had a better theoretical construct as compared to the ASM and was introduced with international support. Performance of AEOs under both of these pure models was significantly lower than that of an AEO adopting an IEM of extension work. Similar performance of AEOs under the TVM and ASM was, therefore, due to the failure of the model to manifest environmental factors and management practices which exhibited significant contributions to performance. In designing and implementing a model, factors contributing to performance need to be taken into account.

Some Recent Strategies on women in Development and Poverty in the Philippines

Florentina A. Tan

Abstract:

Poverty and economic marginalization are issues that are of paramount importance for women in the Philippines. Lack of access to productive inputs such as credit and land are linked to women’s poverty while inequality between men and women in the economy is also linked to poverty. In this context, the two strategies adopted by the government to address poverty is to provide assistance, mostly through credit, in establishing income generating projects, and to protect the natural resources from which the poor derive their income. However, while a strategy of poverty reduction is inefficient without an accompanying WID strategy, WID is not entirely a poverty issue. This article reviews the impact of two projects, the Second Micro Credit Project and the Fishery Sector Programme, on Women.

Effects of Irrigation on Household Income and Food Security in a Deeply Flooded Area in Bangladesh

Mustafizur Rahman, Soumendra Nath Saha and Rezaul Karim

Abstract:

The effects of irrigation on household income and food security were examined by a study of 200 households in five villages in a deeply flooded area in Bangladesh. The average household head was an illiterate owner cum tenant farmer, having a secondary source of income, a household of 7.65 members, a farm of 2.65 acres, indebted to money lenders or institutions, and in deficit in household food production. The findings indicate that although irrigation increased the total cropped area and cropping intensity the increments were small. Irrigation replaced less productive local variety crops by more productive high yielding varieties and low value corps by high value crops. The adjustments were large in the dry rabi season but small in the wet kharif season and resulted in more specialization of cropping in the irrigated condition. The small effect of irrigation on cropping was due to the deep flooding nature of the area which prevents triple cropping and restricts cultivation of high yielding variety rice in the summer even with irrigation. Irrigation, however, increased net annual income and access to rice, and increased substantially food grain production and calorie production of the households. The average household did not fulfill the recommended dietary allowances of calories of its members and small farm households fulfilled only one half of the allowances in the non-irrigated condition. They fulfilled 293 per cent and 173 per cent of the allowances respectively in the irrigated condition. Irrigation reduced the small farm households’ share of net income, access to rice, food grain production and calorie production but the reductions were not that large.

Asia- Pacific Journal of Rural Development ( APJORD)

Vol. VI, July 1996, No. 1

Sustaining Food Security for Rainfed Ecosystems in Asia

Mahabub Hossain

Abstract:

Since 1966 when the release of IR-8 triggered the green revolution in humid and subhumid tropics in Asia, rice production has increased at 2.4 per cent per year, faster than the rate of population growth. The increase in production has come mostly from investment in water resource development that converted the variable monsoon-dependent rice growing environment into an irrigated ecosystem suitable for the modern varieties developed by rice scientists. The rice yield has remained low in rainfed lowlands and uplands, at 2.0 ton per hectare compared to 5.0 ton for the irrigated ecosystem. Although mist Asian countries have declared themselves as self-sufficient in rice production, food insecurity and poverty are widely prevalent in regions with unfavourable rice growing environments. Increase in supplies from the existing irrigated land may not help these people in rainfed systems to meet their food needs because of the lack of purchasing capacity and alternative opportunities for productive employment. Further expansion of irrigation is constrained by rising costs and growing environmental concerns. Scientists must take up the difficult challenge of developing resistance to various abiotic stresses in high-yielding rice cultivars, and improving farming practices that increase productivity of the rice-based systems, to help people in rainfed environments achieve and sustain food security.

A Model for Analyzing Gender Relations in Two Tribal Communities in Orissa, India

Smita Mishra and Reidar Dale

Abstract:

Gender relations among tribal communities in India have not been much studied so far because of the assumption that these communities are fairly homogeneous and egalitarian. This article provides a rationale for studying gender relations in two tribal communities in Orissa, India. A modal is developed to address gender relations at the household level and a Gender Relations Index is computed. This index illustrates the nature and complexities of gender relations among the tribal communities and the power each gender enjoys not only at the household level but also in relation with the State and the market. Additionally the labour contribution of each is measured by a time use index which is linked to the Gender Relations Index. The differences in gender relations and time use are further analyzed and explained in the text.

Village Livestock and Disease Control in Northern Thailand: A Survey Examining Socio-economic Factors

T. Murphy and C.A.Tisdell

Abstract:

The article report the results of a survey of 135 village households in Northern Thailand owning livestock. The general socio-economic characteristics of the households are specified, including the nature of employment of household member, the types of land use, and the incomes of households. Data were obtained about who villagers ask for help when their livestock are sick, and the sources of their information about diseases in livestock. Particular attention is given to bovines (cattle and buffalo), pigs and poultry. Information is provided about ownership of livestock in the villages, husbandry of livestock, the occurrence and control of livestock diseases, and the results are analyzed to enable some general relationships to be reported. These should be taken into account when formulating public policies to control livestock diseases in rural areas.

Rethinking Food Security in the Context of Development Paradigms

Kamal Nayan Kabra

Abstract:

The article attempts to identify some major limitations of the prevalent concept of food security which arises, the author contends, basically owing to the impact of the presently dominant techno-economic growth paradigm and the resulting policy package. This concept of food security preserves and fosters inequity, dependence, isolated sectoral approach and makes the exercise a prisoner of more of the same syndrome, may be better planned, and delivered with larger allocations in the light of the observed shortcomings. Based on the premise that as basic a need as secure access to food can neither be separated from nor pitted against the other needs and spheres of human-social existence, it outlines an alternative concept and policy based on an alternative development paradigm.

Asia- Pacific Journal of Rural Development ( APJORD)

Vol. VI, December 1996, No. 2

Disaster Reduction and Preparedness

G.N.Ritchie

Abstract:

The author in this article seeks to move the focus of responsibility and action for disaster reduction and management away from those in the fields of scientific prediction and humanitarian relief, and on to those with responsibility for development planning and administration in government.

He argues that disaster reduction and effective management when disaster strikes, demands: comprehensive analysis of development plans, the disaster threats to them and the probable affects of development projects on the environment and society; thoroughly co-ordinated disaster preparedness and contingency plans; extensive management information systems relevant to development and to disaster response and recovery. The importance of education, administrative staff training and public information programmes, as essential of effective disaster preparedness, whether against natural or technological hazards and threats, firmly into the domain of development planning, whether rural or industrial. It also stresses these matters as being sovereign national responsibilities not those of the UN or other aid donors.

Disaster Mitigation through People’s Participation: Role of Local Self-government Institutions

AVS Reddy, B K Thapliyal , K R Sastry

Abstract:

The article argues for the integration of disaster management with long term development planning, and for the adoption of a holistic rather than a segmented approach to disaster mitigation. An important component of this approach is popular participation. As popular participation does not occur spontaneously, local government institutions, together with non-government and voluntary organizations can be given a greater role in mobilizing people and local resources to complement government efforts at disaster mitigation and relief. Taking the example of panchayati raj institutions in the South Indian state of Andhra Pradesh, the article deals with the mechanics of involving people in relief and mitigation planning before, during, and after the occurrence of natural disasters like cyclones and floods.

Politicizing Rural Development: Lessons from India’s West Bengal

Prabhat Datta

Abstract:

This article seeks to present the different aspects of the rural development programme being implemented by the Left Front government in West Bengal against the backdrop of India’s rural development experience. It has been argued that politicization or rural development is characterized by strong political will, radical ideological back up, dismantling of the traditional power structure and continuous monitoring and supervision by well-knit cadre based parties constituting the Left Front. While the core of this model is land reform, the key to the success of the programme is grassroots mobilization through political panchayats and peasant organizations. It has also been emphasized that the power of the bureancracy need to be curtailed as far as possible to practice any pro-poor rural development model.

Stagnating Productivity in Crop Agriculture: The Quest for Sources of Growth

Indrajit Roy

Abstract:

The article reviews growth in productivity of basic food cereals in Bangladesh during the period from 1970/71 to 1993/94. The major source of rice production growth came from the shift of area from local rice varieties to modern varieties (MVs) or expansion of MV rice into newer areas. The yield of rice MVs declined or stagnated during this period which was most notable for Boro rice. Yield of wheat almost entirely planted with MVs also decreased during the 1981/82-1993/94 period. The major factors identified as responsible for decelerating growth in yield frontier are declining soil fertility, decline in efficiency in use of fertilizer and other inputs, increasing intensity of pest outbreaks, seed quality and varietal replacement at the farm level. The study suggests several options to reverse the declining trend of productivity growth in those crops.

Loan Repayment Behaviour Among the Rural Poor

Lao PDR and Malaysia

Abstract:

Availability of and access to credit by the poor are critical elements in enhancing their productivity and income. However, despite the universal acknowledgement of the significance of rural credit, the institutional coverage, compared to its demand remains sparse.

In order to help improve the access to institutional credit for the rural poor and make credit programmes for them viable, CIRDAP initiated the research project titled Loan Repayment Behaviour Among the Rural Poor in five countries, namely Lao PDR, Malaysia, Nepal, Pakistan and the Philippines with financial support from the Government of Japan. The major objectives of the project were to review selected rural credit programmes to ascertain the accessibility of the rural poor to credit to identify factors that contribute or constrain the recovery of loans, and to suggest essential elements of viable credit programmes for the rural poor. The project comprised a research and an action research component. Action programmes at the field level were to test, validate and /or modify the proposed credit model involving seed money-disbursements, use, monitoring, supervision for repayment of loans, while the research component focused on the general socio-economic characteristics of the country concerned, its poverty situation, policy framework for rural development in general and poverty reduction in particular, the credit delivery system/programmes and the loan repayment behaviour of the rural poor carried out under different credit programmes of government and non-government organizations and with respect to different categories of borrowers.

Based on the coutry findings, the study re-examined the policy assumptions vis-à-vis rural credit and suggested rational and sustainable policy alternatives.

In this issue the highlights of the country reports of Lao PDR and Malaysia are presented.

Asia- Pacific Journal of Rural Development ( APJORD)

Vol. VII, July 1997, No. 1

Development Discourse and Post-Colonial Theory

Uma Kothari

Abstract:

This paper begins with an examination of the colonial nature of the development discourse focusing on examples of the masculinist and Eurocentric narratives that are articulated within it and goes on to present post-colonial critiques in order to explore the process of the decolonisation of Development Studies.

Development Studies have remained largely untouched by recent contributions made in other disciplines (Geography, Social anthropology, Literary Criticism) which challenge the centrality of Western knowledge and forms of representation. In this paper it has been suggested that these debates offer Development Studies an opportunity to move beyond its colonial narratives and practices.

For the poor in many countries of the ‘Third Word’, the 1980s has been described as a lost decade. The poor have got poorer and inequalities persist and have often become exacerbated. There has also been in the last 10 years some debate on what has been termed the ‘impasse’ in development theory. This recent questioning of processes of development has been brought about by the recognition of the failure of much development planning to reduce in qualities and alleviate poverty, and by post-modern, post-colonial and feminist critiques which have leveled challenges at the masculinist, Eurocentric discourse articulated in much development theory and practice.

This has led some people to (re-)consider what meanings we can realistically attribute to development in the 1990s and beyond.

Participation: Connotations and Content

K. R. Sastry

Abstract:

This paper is the result of a close look at the nuances of people’s participation in development. Since it has become a dominant theme of our times, its salience in all developmental efforts has to be reiterated. Various aspects—economic, social, political and administrative—would influence the policy makers in enlisting people’s participation. In the Indian model of micro-level planning, participation of people in the development process has been a bit hazy. An attempt is made here to juxtapose several different kinds of dimensions to facilitate a comprehensive understanding of the phenomenon. An operationally serviceable definition might be encapsuled thus: ‘Participation encompasses institutional and psycho-social processes of development, oriented to maintaining and sustaining an atmosphere conducive to higher levels of sharing and involvement in socio-political, economic and administrative spheres on the part of citizens, particularly those belonging to the lower or weaker socio-economic strata.’

Macro-economic Reforms and Poverty Alleviation in Sri Lanka

Gamini Wickramasinghe and T A Dharmarathne

Abstract:

The article aims at reviewing the socio-economic development trends in Sri Lanka that have taken place following the economic reforms introduced in 1977 in terms of poverty alleviation considerable Literature is already available which compares the economic performance in the pre-1977 period with that of that of the subsequent period.’ However, the package remains to be studied from the perspective of poverty alleviation. Furthermore, hardly any studies have been done which specifically focus on the past decade. This article attempts-

ü To identify the trens in the socioeconomic developments following SAP;

ü To analyses the macro-economic policies and its impact on poverty;

ü To review the poverty alleviation strategies and programmes;

ü To assess the adequacy of policy framework for poverty alleviation; and

ü To suggest suitable recommendations for improving the policy framework on alleviation of poverty.

Asia- Pacific Journal of Rural Development ( APJORD)

Vol. VII, December 1997, No. 2

Loan Contracts in Agrarian Credit Markets under Rationing, Spillover and Tied Situations

K. N. Selvaraj and N. Srinivasan

Abstract:

The article analyses the nature of loan contracts in agrarian credit markets under rationing, spill-over and tied contract. The credit market may not operate in equilibrium due to the existence of credit rationing in the formal credit market. The standard disequilibrium econometric model is employed to examine credit rationing in the formal credit market using primary survey data. The spill-over effect is assessed using demand-supply equations specified with intercept dummy. Credit rationing is found pervasive among the small farmers in region I and substantial among all groups in region II. Traders play an important role in informal credit market and a refusal to accept a tied contract creates adverse effect on production. The interest rate elasticity for private credit demand is found positive and inelastic. The cost of borrowing indicates that farmers incur larger extra costs in the process of obtaining a formal loan as compared to informal loans. However, the effective rate of formal credit is less due to subsidized interest rate.

Decentralized Planning Framework for Public Interventions: Lessons from Kerala’s Untied Funds Programme

K. R. Sastry and K. H. Rao

Abstract:

The purpose of this paper is to critically examine the design deficiencies and operational problems of the state sponsored Untied Funds Programme (UFP) essentially aiming at need-based local level planning in Kerala. Since, it is expected to both generate as well as to sustain a participatory development, an attempt is also made: a) to assess the potential to UFP to hasten the decentralization process by increasing the demand for it (decentralization) at the grassroots level in as much as equipping the local people and institutions with management/professional skills; and b) to suggest and analytical framework with Grama Panchayats as fulcrums of (local) development initiatives with convergence of services as a key area of consolidation and sustainability, among others.

Poverty in Sri Lanka: nature, incidence and measurement issues

D. Gamage

Abstract:

This paper examines the incidence and trends in poverty in Sri Lanka. It also highlights some issues related to poverty assessment and availability of data for poverty analysis in the country. Some correlates of poverty such as employment and unemployment are also examined in the paper. The paper is organized into five sections including the introductory section. In section 2, conceptual and measurement issues in poverty are examined as a prelude to a discussion of a much more pragmatic and methodological issue involved with measuring poverty in Sri Lanka. The third section is devoted to examining such issues along with a set of identified correlates. Poverty measurement issues with special reference to Sri Lanka are examined in the fourth section. Subjects dealt in the fourth section include the comparability of existing data and their adequacy in understanding poverty. The final section is devoted to drawing the implications of the analysis.

Urbanization, Migration and Poverty: some recent debates and their policy implications

K. N. Kabra

Abstract:

Urbanization, migration and informal sector issues are prominently related to both rural and urban poverty. An examination 9of the basic logic, inter-connections and implications of theses issues suggests that the wisdom rooted in the hypothesis of inevitability and desirability of modern industrialization, urbanization and growth without a trickle-down paradigm postulates a symbiotic relationship between industrialization-urbanization on the one hand, and the rural sector and poverty on the other,. The analysis tends to suggest that these views are grossly oversimplified and mis-interprete some of the critical dimensions of the crisis of hitherto followed growth-centred policies, particularly in the rural sector, especially owing to their urban-industrial bias. The tendency to give higher inter se priority to urban poverty vis-à-vis rural poverty is basically flawed, more so when it is treated as a pro-rural step. They spring from a misreading of the nature, process and impact of the policies concerning urbanization, rural to urban migration and informal sector. Indirect and round about methods of dealing with underdevelopment and poverty are rarely adequate and are often counter-productive. A study case for primacy of rural development along with that of the needs and interests of rural poor is made as a part of an integrated development strategy; which is also desirable form the point of alternating urban poverty

Asia- Pacific Journal of Rural Development ( APJORD)

Vol. VIII, July 1998, No. 1

Spatial Patterns of Agricultural Development and Their Investment Priorities in India

T. Haque, S.R. Hashim and Shanggen Fan

Abstract:

The article examines the spatial patterns of agricultural development in the background of significant progress achieved in terms of both output and productivity growth during the past few decades in India. In order to adopt the available new technology for ensuring food and nutritional security for the growing population and to remove regional imbalances in agriculture, the potential for the development of rainfed areas are highlighted along with the need for location specific strategies for development. The measures required to bridge the productivity gaps between irrigated and rainfed areas are also identified. In this context, the article deals with issues of productivity potentials of different regions and suggests specific investment priorities for various agro-economic zones keeping in view the spatial patterns of agriculture production and their requirements.

Malnutrition and Development: a case study of Sri Lanka

Mohottige U. Sedere

Abstract:

The article discusses malnutrition, a prevalent problem in South Asia, in the light of a household survey of nutritional status of children in Sri Lanka. The discussion brings out a new wave of thinking to explain malnutrition in a country like Sri Lanka where social sector indicators relation to literacy, mortality, life expectancy etc, are at an exemplary level, closer to the levels recorded in the developed countries, The article, giving reference to a new development phenomena described as First and Second Cycles of Development, interprets the household survey data to support and demonstrate that malnutrition in Sri Lanka is not caused by the conventional factors often cited in the literature. A range of new factors relating to the characteristics of the Second Cycle of Development such as middle class mentality, development drives, housing etc, and new demands and situations created by the open market economy are discussed to explain the prevalence of malnutrition.

An Appraisal of the Adarsha Gram Project in Bangladesh

Syed Marghub Murshed and Syed Mansoob Murshed

Abstract:

The Adarsha Gram project, a rural resettlement and poverty alleviation programme, has been in existence since 1988; initially set up and funded by the Government of Bangladesh, it has since 1991 received assistance from the European Commission. There appears to be an under valuation of the contribution of the Government of Bangladesh, as the land provided does not enter into the measured project expenditure. The results of the evaluation are based on responses to a questionnaire, obtained from a representative sample of the total Adarsha Gram population. As far as the measurable targets of the project are concerned success has been achieved in terms of access to loans, savings formation, education and skill acquisition. The lessons learnt from the AG-1 phase of the project point to a serious re-appraisal of the principles behind the financial assistance to NGOs. There could be a sharper focus on service provision, with greater concentration on fewer, but more important aspects of each service category. The emphasis should be on quality. Education is, perhaps, the most important service, due to its contribution to the long-term growth of the economy.

Alternative Agriculture in Thailand and Japan

Sununtar Setboonsarng and Jonathan Gilman

Abstract:

The paper examines the current state of alternative agriculture, and their future potential in Thailand and Japan. Six of the most widespread and/ or influential alternative agricultural systems in the two countries are documented, each one in terms of the systems practices, theme (whether the emphasis is on spiritual or technical/marketing aspects of farming); and present status where applicable. Also included are discussions, applicable to the Asian region of the costs involved in converting to alternative agriculture and of the future potential. A literature review is presented to document other studies on alternative agriculture in the two countries and to help establish a definition of the term ‘alternative agriculture.’

Minor Irrigation, Input Response and Crop Output: the study of a block in a North Bengal District, India

Sudip Chakraborty

Abstract:

The Government of West Bengal began installing minor irrigation equipment during the eighties through Central as well as World Bank’s assistance in specific locations. The present study seeks to find the impact of such projects on crop output, input use and their productivities on a particular crop, namely, pre-monsoon paddy of traditional variety in a selected irrigated area. The study finds that per acre output of the crop at farm gate prices are Rs 2946 in the irrigated area. The study finds that per acre output of the crop at farm gate prices are Rs 2946 in the irrigated area as compared to Rs 2225 in the non-irrigated area. The study concludes that India’s rural development policy should be reoriented to lay high priority to rural infrastructural development with assured irrigation network.

Asia- Pacific Journal of Rural Development ( APJORD)

Vol. VIII, December 1998, No. 2

Access to credit and the Effects of Credit on Resource allocation Decisions and Productivity in Indian Agriculture

K. N. Selvaraj, K. Chandran and K. R. Sundaravaradarajan

Abstract:

The article presents the findings of research conducted in two regions of Tamil Nadu in India on credit access and its effects on resource allocation decisions and productivity. Both the regions depend on farming and allied activities. The results indicate that both small and large farmers borrow from formal credit institutions and the growth of formal credit does not necessarily lead to a decline in informal credit despite high interest rates. The study reports that access to both formal and informal credit is crucial for adoption of improved variety and wage payments. The access to formal credit also plays an important role in decisions leading to pesticides and farm yard manure use. The study suggests the need for revision of the existing scale of finance taking into consideration the increased cost of inputs to help the farmers to use optimal levels of inputs and increase the productivity of crops.

Rural Poverty and Importance of Small-Scale Industries: the case of Indonesia

Tulus Tambunan

Abstract:

Small-scale industries (SSIs) in Indonesia are considered highly important, particularly is terms of their contribution to creation of employment opportunities and income generation for the rural poor and the development of the rural economy in general.

The Indonesian government, in recognition of such importance, has designed special policies and assistance has been provided to support the SSIs in the country. The paper reviews the Indonesian experience of the development of SSIs in the rural areas and associated policies. The paper suggests that successful development SSIs requires not only special policies and good institutions. A proper combination of such policies and institutions may have a greater and sustainable long-term impact than the specially designed policies on the development of SSIs, through the creation of a conducive business environment

Food Security and Sustainability under Internationalization of Agriculture: some reflections and scope for action with reference to India

Sukhpal Singh

Abstract:

Food security refers to both physical and economic access to adequate, safe, nutritious and relevant food at all times for all people to lead an active and healthy life. The food security at the national level does not necessarily ensure household food security, which, in turn, is no guarantee for individual food security. The concern for food security has been heightened in the presence of policy environment of liberalization, privatization and globalization (LPG) which directly of indirectly affect food security issues.

In the context of internationalization of agriculture, the paper examines the food security issues in India its various dimensions, and the likely implications of the new economic regime on food security. It is argued that though there has been improvements in food security situation over the past decades in physical terms (food availability), the trend is not very encouraging as significant sections of the population still suffer from malnutrition and under-nutrition. The GATT and SAP are likely to further weaken the food security situation, especially through their impact on the farm sector and people’s incomes and employment. The unsustainable farming systems are not capable of providing nutritious and sustainable supply of food in terms of both relevance as well as purchasing power. The paper suggests both national as well as local level initiatives to strengthen the food security situation.

Farmers’ Organizations in Malaysia: perspective, role and outlook

Abdul Aziz Abdul Rahman

Abstract:

The article traces the historical development of cooperatives and farmers’ organizations (FOs) im Malaysia and examines the role of FOs in agricultural and rural development. While the FOs are observed to perform a number of important functions e.g. marketing of agricultural produce, service delivery and inputs supply, contract works and special projects, the average volume of business and amount of profit generated per member are relatively small compared to some private sector organizations e.g. plantation companies. This, however, should be viewed in terms of salient differences in objectives and operations of FOs as compared to such organizations. The article points out the important role that FOs can play in sustaining agricultural and rural employment, and as catalysts in generating backward and forward linkages that could create new employment opportunities in the rural areas. The role of the FOs is vital not only in ensuring livelihoods to a large proportion of the rural population but also in dampening the rural-urban migration in the country.

Rural Small and Micro-Enterprises in Pakistan: issues and options

Rana Nasir Ali Khan

Abstract:

The paper discusses the role of rural small and micro enterprises in Pakistan in terms of employment generation, poverty alleviation and creation of linkages to accelerate the process of rural development. Considering the importance of the sector, the government has created several channels of finance and other support organizations. Besides, the Investment Policy 1997 allows for foreign investment in agriculture and includes agro-based industries as priority manufacturing activities. The paper highlights the constraints and suggest policy options for promotion of rural small and micro-enterprises in Pakistan. In this context, the need of reorientation in four key areas e.g. skill, credit, marketing and government policies are emphasized.

Asia- Pacific Journal of Rural Development ( APJORD)

Vol. IX, July 1999, No. 1

Development of Rainwater Harvesting for Domestic Water Use in Rural Sri Lanka

R. de. S. Ariyabandu

Abstract:

Adequate good quality water is a scarce commodity to most parts of rural Sri Lanka. Often, rural water supply options have failed to achieve its potential due to technical, financial or management reasons. Rainwater harvesting as a rural water supply option was introduced in 1995 under the community water supply and sanitation project in Badulla district. Subsequently, rainwater as a source of domestic water was successfully accepted in areas where other water supply options hae failed due to various reasons. Since introducing rainwater harvesting, water security assurance of the beneficiary communities in many parts of the country have improved quality, time with family members and given them the opportunity for entertaining friends and relations, which was restricted prior to utilization of rainwater. Thus, the concept of using rainwater for domestic use is increasingly being accepted in rural Sri Lanka where the livelihood of user communities have improved with respect to quality, time and adequacy of demestic water.

Functioning of Informal Credit Market and Its Linkages:Evidences from Rural Credit Markets of South India

K.N.Selvaraj and K.R.Sundaravaradarajan

Abstract:

The study is directed towards functioning of informal credit market and its relation with other markets. Explicit and implicit costs of various linkages were estimated to examine the nature of linkage. Demand-supply model for private credit under equilibrium condition was specified with intercept dummy to assess the effect of tied transaction. Probit regression was employed to analyze the factors determining the acceptance or rejection of tied contract. There was large-scale expansion of credit in the informal credit market and trades dominated it. Among the output linked transactions, cash to output linkage was found beneficial. A refusal to accept a tied contract had adverse effect on production. The interest rate elasticity of demand for private credit was found positive and inelastic.

Participation of Rural Poor in Government and NGO Programmes: a comparative study

Dr. Muhammad Samad

Abstract:

In recent times. Governments and NGOs are providing continued support for ensuring people’s participation in the development process. Like many developing countries, participation of the rural poor as target groups in development progrmmes initiated by various government agencies (GAs) and NGOs is being encouraged in Bangladesh since mid-seventies, in particular. This paper is an attempt to examine the participation of the target people in terms of their involvement in planning, decision-making implementation, benefit sharing and evaluation relating to the development programmes of GAs and NGOs from a comparative point of view. It deals particularly with the different aspects of participation of the rural poor in the credit operation and social development activities of BRDB and BRAC as a GA and as an NGO respectively working in Bangladesh. It is observed that the target people of both the GA and NGO programmes are aware of their needs and problems, and themselves prepared to participate for improvements of their socio-economic life. Both GAs and NGOs are playing stimulating roles in making their participation systematic, effective and more beneficial to them. The rural poor are facing several problems in their participation in decision-making, implementation, benefit sharing and evaluation of the development activities. Many of the problems identified by the present study are redressable. However, the research suggests that more improvements are needed in strategy of GA compared to that of NGO for increased and meaningful participation of the rural poor in the development activities

Corporate Participation in Rural Development A New Model Suggested

B. Yerram Raju

Abstract:

Several studies have been conducted on the impact of rural development projects and all of them have directed their attention only to the role of government sponsored programmes. Poverty alleviation programmes had made the heavily dependent on government and the bureaucracy. The Government of India accordingly took the initiative through a fiscal policy measure to entice the corporate entities both in the public and private sectors to take up rural development projects. This paper intends to set out a model for partnership between the government and corporate entities that are engaged in the pursuit of rural development.

In a few organizations, the corporates promote a non-governmental organization involving people to manage the designed activities, sometimes, by compulsion. Compulsion-because they have displaced the people for setting up their projects (NTPC). Non-governmental organizations assisted by private donor agencies or even the government also implement rural development projects. The government and the corporate entities have a common goal. If the people involved, the government and the banks formulate well designed projects and the companies provide the scheme specific and general infrastructure, would it not lead to better synergies? These are the issues that are sought to be resolved in the new model that is suggested. The author cites a few examples of successful collaboration between the Indian corporates and the government.

The model suggested does not, however, envisage any structural dis-entanglement of the companies from the present pattern of their association with rural development projects.

Impact of Irrigation Management Policy on Environment: Lessons from Sri Lanka

M.M.Mohamed Aheeyar

Abstract:

What is likely to e a most critical resource in the near future for agricultural development in Sri Lanka. Sustainable management of water resources is imperative to avoid the envisaged water crisis . Although agriculture sector is main water user of the country, water has many alternative uses and water shortage in increasingly experienced in many locations. In the meantime, 35 percent of rural population are deprived of safe water for drinking purposes. Thus, a sustainable policy for irrigation management seems to be an indispensable component of the national water policy.

Participatory irrigation system management policy has been the major irrigation policy in Sri Lanka since 1988. The major objective of the objective of the policy was to reduce the public sector involvement in the irrigation management and irrigation management and irrigation management turnover. The paper examines the effect of reduced government involvement in sustainability of irrigation infrastructure and the policy’s impact on environment.

The results of the study reveal that the current level of resource mobilization for system maintenance raise the question of sustainability of the infrastructure and the policy has not properly sustainability some important environmental issues such as maintenance of drainage canals and physical sustainability of infrastructure. The challenge thus faced at present institutional that could be solved with a planned intervention providing special attention to the environment.

Microfinance in the Selected Asian Countries: an overview

Shabbir Hussain

Abstract:

Access to financial resources by the poorer sections of the population has been and is being considered a major problem. In 1950s and 60s, a number of financial institutions proved unable to meet the challenges of institutional and financial sustainability and their outreach to people at the grassroots level. In this scenario, a variety of initiatives of micro-finance combining financial and social intermediation have emerged during the recent decades. Analysis of such initiatives undertaken in Africa, Asia, and Latin America suggest that there is no single model that can be prescribed for all circumstances. Rather, adjusting financial institutions and their operations to local conditions implies diversity and innovation.

With the exemplary success of Grameen Bank in Bangladesh, and programmes like Self-Employment Women Association (SEWA) in India, Bank Rakyat (BRI) IN Indonesia, micro-credit has been recognized as a poor-friendly development intervention for poverty alleviation. It has become increasingly popular among various government and non-government organizations (NGOs) in the region. There have been a lot of discussions on this topic, which is particularly relevant to today’s economic context when most of the Asian countries are suffering from economic crisis.

This paper presents an overview of various initiatives of microfinance particularly in some selected Asian Countries. Some successful models of microfinance have been identified and analysed in terms of their approach, and lessons learnt. Major programme of microfinance in the selected countries have been listed as an annex to the paper. These include the approach and output in terms of coverage and outreach in their respective countries. Certain issues have also been identified concerning sustainability, scaling up, access to funding sources, internal and external governance. The paper highlights some factors contribution towards the success of microfinance in the region and the increasing role of NGOs microfinance.

The paper suggests some critical features and measures in the last section under future directions. These include: availability and accessibility of credit, institutional development, GO-NGO collaboration, NGO Bank linkages, implementation and the need of regional cooperation in microfinance through the regional organizations like Centre on Integrated Rural Development for Asia and the Pacific (CIRDAP)

Asia- Pacific Journal of Rural Development ( APJORD)

Vol. IX, December 1999, No. 2

Foodgrain Production in Bangladesh as Influenced by Trends in Use of Inputs and their Management at the farm Level

Indrajit Roy

Abstract:

This paper investigates the trends of foodgrain production in Bangladesh over the period 1990/71-1997/98 as influenced by availability and management of inputs at the farm level. Usage of inputs was influenced by gradual reduction of the public sector dominance since the 1980s in the provision of agricultural support services. Compared with 1981/82-1989/90, growth rates of foodgrain production and input use decelerated during 1990/91-1997/98. When growth scenario of the use of inputs for the two time periods is compared with that of production, it becomes evident that deceleration in the growth of foodgrain production in 1990/91-1997/98 was much more pronounced than deceleration in the use of inputs during the same period. In other words, the response to deceleration in the growth of input usage in terms of a downturn in the growth of foodgrain production was much deeper than is often apprehended.

Production structure and Technical Efficiency Analsis of Sericulture in Pakistani Punjab

Munir Ahmad and Tanvir Khaliq Shami

Abstract:

The objectives of this paper are to study the sericulture production structure and the analysis of farm-level technical efficiency measures. The results show that most of the farmers involved in this enterprise are illiterate. This industry is further characterized by: inappropriate rearing sheds, complete lack of extension service, dependence on government forest for mulberry leaves-facing peak season shortage, supply of poor quality silkworm seed and improper processing and marketing facilities. Labour shares more than 70 percent of the total cost of production and, however, promises reasonably high return on investment. Stochastic production frontier analysis indicates that the sericulture enterprise faces increasing returns to scale. Average technical efficiency is found to be 0.88 with a minimum of 0.3 and a maximum of 0.98 leaving significant scope for improvement in productivity and thus profitability. The results further show that technical efficiency is positively associated with the size of the acitivity.

People’s Participation and Forest Management in India: few emerging issues

V. Reddappa Reddy

Abstract:

Forest protection and management have undergone a metamorphosis over the years in India. Forest protection practice gave way to forest management. And People’s participation in forest management has emerged as the latest development paradigm, with a robust christening., namely, Joint Forest Management (JFM). The track record of this practice, however, did not show the expected results at macro level. Due to people’s participation in forest management few issues have prominently emerged that need to be addressed immediately. The dearth of literature explaining the impact of people’s participation in forest management calls for a detailed discussion on these issues. The paper is primarily based on the experience in participatory rural appraisal, field observations and evaluation of the programme. The paper traces back the history and mechanism of people’s participation in forest management. The issues that have already found place in related literature are delineated here. The participation of women and weaker sections in JFM, alternative sources of income and employment for forest displaced people, transfer of burden ton non-JFM areas, practice of usurping usufructs by few powerful sections and sustainability component in JFM practice are some of the issues considered here.

The Mystery of Mis-Targeting in Micro Credit

P. Subrahmanyam

Abstract:

The potency of micro credit as anti-poverty programme is now widely recognized. Considering the past trials and tribulations of micro credit programme, the paper scans the emerging models for the effective delivery of micro credit. It also presents different methods employed for identification, screening, segregation and selection of eligible clientele under micro credit programme. It then raises two fundamental issues: i) why is it that micro credit is unable to reach the hardcore poor? And ii) why is it that the implementing agencies are unable to prevent the ‘encroachment’ of non-target groups into the areas earmarked for the poor? It presents some evidence on the mis-targeting in Grameen Bank and BRAC micro credit programmes. While describing the ‘tense balance’ between the target group and the no-target group on the one hand, and between the government and the NGO/micro finance institutions on the other, the paper suggests that there is a need for future research to find satisfactory solutions to these issues.

Measuring Women’s Empowerment: some methodological issues

Tapash Kumar Biswas

Abstract:

The major aim of this article is to develop comprehensive indictors for measuring women’s empowerment and to formulate a suitable index for measuring the level of women’s empowerment. In order to develop indicators of women’s empowerment. Different journals, books an reports have been consulted. In this article eleven indicators of women’s empowerment with different issues under each indicator have been discussed. These indicators are: mobility decision making power, autonomy, economic security and freedom from domination awareness, participation in public protests and political compaign, contribution to family income, reproductive right, exposure to information and participation in development programmes. Considering all these indicators, and issues under each indicator the empowerment index has been developed to measure he level of empowerment of women in the context of Bangladesh.

Asia- Pacific Journal of Rural Development ( APJORD)

Vol. X, July 2000, No. 1

Assessment of factors Influencing Agricultural Transformation Process.: evidence from Midhills Region of Nepal

Surendra B. Thapa and Ganesh P. Shivakoti

Abstract:

In the mid-hills of Nepal, as in many developing countries, the gradually developing urban centre and increasing food demand for agricultural produce due to population growth and to early development activities have induced farmers to re-orient their subsistence farming to systems of growing crops for markets. Based on household survey and group discussion, the results indicate that in areas where rapid changes in farming systems is occurring, farmers are expanding their private landholdings and increasing their market participation through replacing local rice and maize varieties by improved one with improved livestock management practices, irrespective of caste, which is often considered a social barrier to development. Off-farm wage labour has also increased to the point where it contributes up to one-half of total household income. Multiple regression identified income from different farm enterprises and the ratio of improved to loc determining the level of commercialization.

Determinants of Household Earnings in rural Economy of Thailand

Rajendra P. Shrestha and Apisit Eiumnoh

Abstract:

A study was carried out in the Sakae Krang watershed, a fragile watershed of Thailand, with the objectives of documenting the nature of agricultural production systems in lowland and upland areas and to examine the determinants of gross earnings of rural households. A household survey was conducted to collect primary data by administering a structured questionnaire to sampled households from lowland and upland. The upland production system, in general, is mire vulnerable than the one of lowland in terms of agricultural production. Factors affecting the gross earnings of lowland and upland households are different in nature and magnitude. Besides crop and livestock-based earnings, which were common for both lowland and upland households, more factors appeared to have contributed to the gross earnings of upland households. The significant determinants of gross earnings of upland households were sources of farm and non-farm income, education and environment awareness, irrigation, land tenure status, and an accessibility, fertilizer application, non-farm earning, expenditure on livestock were found to be significant.

Economic Analysis of Peri-Urban Milk Production System Based on Findings from a Survey of Small Dairy Herds Located Around Islamabad City

Muzaffar Iqbal and R. H. Usmani

Abstract:

Data regarding various economic parameters of small dairy herds/ farms located in the pari-urban areas of Islamabad city were collected through a survey. A total of 88 farms located in 7 peri-urban pockets were included. Majority (74%) of the farmers interviewed in the survey kept buffaloes for milk production and, almost all of them sold milk mainly in the Islamabad City. Farmers purchased freshly calved buffaloes brought from distant areas, maintained them for one lactation, and sold them on body weight basis as they got dry. The main purpose of this study is to analyse whether it is economical to sell dry buffaloes at prices based upon their body weight or to maintain them for future lactations. Through gross margin analysis, it has been found that farmers are profitably operating their dairy business and it is economical for them to replace their dry stock with freshly calved buffaloes.

Institutions for Efficient and Equitable Use of Groundwater: Irrigation Management Institution and Water Market in Gujarat, Western India

M. Dinesh Kumar

Abstract:

Groundwater irrigation organization and water markets have been in existence in north Gujarat for many decades. This paper is based on a study carried out in a village called Manund in Patan district of North Gujarat, where a large number of Groundwater Irrigation Organistions are functioning. The study shoes that these organistions display the characteristics of strong and effective institutions for managing shared resources, in terms of the rules and regulations, members awareness, transparency in dexision making, conflict resolution mechanisms, degree of equity in access and efficiency in the use of resources.

Development Strategy of Rural Small-Scale Industries with a Cluster Approach: a case of Indonesia

Tulus Tambunan

Abstract:

Small-scale industries (SSSIs) in Indonesia are very important, especially as viewed from their contribution to the creation of employment opportunities and the development of rural economy. The most significant aspect aspect of industrial organization of SSIs in Indonesia is the prominence of SSI clusters; most of them are located in rural areas. As the development of the cluster is one of Indonesian government’s strategies to develop SSIs, there are many clusters across the country which develop with the support from the government. The paper examines the development if SSIs’ clusters in Indonesia and discusses main factors determining the dynamic performance of a cluster. The paper concludes that the performance of a cluster is not mainly determined by government support facilities, but by other factors such as technology used and existing networks, external as well as internal, amongst the entrepreneurs in the cluster.

Asia- Pacific Journal of Rural Development ( APJORD)

Vol. X, December 2000, No. 2

Additionality, Fungibility, Convergence and Income and Substitution Effects of Micre-credit: Findings of an empirical study in Andhra Pradesh, India

P. Dayachari, P. Subrahmanyam and G.R. Reddy

Abstract:

Additionality of credit, especially from formal agencies (priority sector lending programmes, as they are called in India). Tends to reduce the credit gap depressing the prevailing rates of interest in the informal segment of the credit market. This process leades to a reduction in the segmentation of the credit market often leading to extensity and purity. Fungibility buttresses this tendency. This phenomenon is described as convergence culminating in substitution and income effects, the benefits of which are harvested by borrowers. These effects are analysed by the method of comparative statics based on an inductive investigation of 166 sample households from Nellore district of Andhra Pradesh in India. The indifference curve technique innovated by JR Hicks is also used to demonstrate these effects. Though the income and substitution effects are considered position-and size-neutral, their magnitudes show a marginal variation across groups. Our analysis showed that the substitution effect has a built-in bias towards the richer strata, whereas the income effect shows a stronger effect in the non-delta village and among the weaker strata of society. There is a need for future research on these areas.

Market Analysis and Development of Strategies: a case study from Samal Municipality of the Philippines

Lin Zhen and J.K. Routray

Abstract:

There is a need to develop marketing facilities and services in the market town like Samal in the Philippines. However, market development is influenced by a number of factors, such as inefficient market operation , poor management, financial instability, and insufficient mode of transport. Thus, the local markets in Samal are not so attractive to vendors and consumers as markets in other towns. The inter-linkages among local markets are very weak in terms of the consumer and commodity flows. The contribution of market to local economy is very low. The benefits from market operation were not as much as expected. The study recommended the strict implementation of government policies, the preparation of an improved Municipal Market Code, etc. The local government should coordinate and work together with private sector on the one hand, and market vendors and consumers on the other in solving the aforementioned problems.

What did they need and what did we bring? An analysis of the impact of giving tenurial rights to encroached land on rural development: an example of Sri Lanka

S. Gamlath

Abstract:

The popular view that providing land titles could motivate small farmers to increase their agricultural production through increased capital investment has been examined in this study using a project in southern Sri Lanka. Applying both quantitative and qualitative methods, it was attempted to examine whether the anticipated benefits were achieved in this project. The findings suggest that though uncertainty of land security has been a problem for farmers, without addressing other related issues, expected benefits form the project could not be reached just by providing land titles.

Community Management and Water Quality in Rural Water Supply System in Nepal

B. S. Bhandari and B. W. Wickramanayake

Abstract:

This paper critically examines the issues related to the implementation and functioning of community managed rural drinking water schemes in Kavre and Bahlung Districts of Nepal. The results are based on studies of drinking water projects of non-government organization (NGO), international non-government organization (INGO) and government organization (GO) implemented in Nepal during 1986 to 1997. The data used in the study were based on review of reports and field survey in the year 2000. The discussions focused more on assessing the water quality and effectiveness of Water User Committees (WUC) of 179 Drinking Water Supply (DWS) schemes. The awareness of existing inequalities and their social and economic consequences have intensified in the project interventions for improving the general welfare of rural population, as well as for a more efficient use of drinking water. This paper concludes that awareness of safe drinking water and preparing communities before planning and construction of water systems is a prerequisite for the long-term effectiveness and sustainability of drinking water systems. The management of the user group committee is like wise crucial in DWS project.

Institutional Opportunities and Constraints in the Performance of Farmer-Managed Irrigation Systems in Nepal

N.N. Joshi, E. Ostrom, G.P. Shivakoti and W.F. Lam

Abstract:

In this paper, we briefly overview the institutions involved with the interventions in the irrigation sector development along with the process of intervention in Asia in general and Nepal in particular. The we discuss methodological procedures employed in the study. We then describe the context of irrigation management and examine the social and institutional factor affecting performance of farmer and agency-managed irrigation systems. Based on the analysis of 231 farmer-and-agency managed irrigation systems in Nepal, the important result of the study is that farmer-managed irrigation systems with stronger institutional bases such as effective imposition of fine, social sanctions and employment of local monitors created conducive environment for rule following and mutual trust among the users and yielded higher irrigation performance. The policy implication of the study is that the social and institutional support are important aspects of irrigation management; and thus, improving irrigation management suggests a socio-technical approach emphasizing variations in both physical structure and human dimensions of user activities which can produce productive, equitable, cost-effective and ecologically sound irrigation performance.

Asia- Pacific Journal of Rural Development ( APJORD)

Vol. XI, July 2001, No. 1

Non-Timber Forest Products on Shifting Cultivation Plots (Khoriya): A Means of Improving Livelihood of Chepang Rural Hill Tribe of Nepal

Bishnu Hari Pandit

Abstract:

In view of the possible contribution of Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFPs) to enhance economic condition in areas unsuitable for field crop cultivation, this article examines the contribution of NTFPs domesticated on shifting cultivation Plots (called Khoriya in Nepali) to household economy of Chepang Communities. The study is based on the survey of 120 “ Chepang” households and group discussion held in a small mountain watershed of Nepal divided into two elevational zones. The analysis begins with the examination of variation in the socio-economic condition of Chepang communities in upper and lower elevational zones then, extends into exploring relationship between several socio-economic variables and income from NTFPs grown on shifting cultivated lands. The results indicate increasing NTFP cultivation and income from lower to higher altitudes. There is a good prospect for alleviating pressure on forest resources through the promotion of NTFP on degraded watersheds of the mountains of Nepal.

Technical Efficiency Analysis of Pakistan Agriculture with Special Reference to Chemical Fertilizer Use

Ghulam Mustafa Chaudhry

Abstract:

The study uses farm level input-output data for 1997-1998 and analyses the technical efficiency of Pakistani farmer with special reference to fertilizer use. The Cobb Douglas frontier production function incorporating technical inefficiency components model was estimated using information regarding 2315 sample farm households from the selected districts of Punjab, Sindh and Northwest Frontier Province of Pakistan. Education of the farm operator and irrigation source has a more pronounced effect on technical efficiency. The tenant operated farms are more efficient than those operated by owners or owner-cum-tenants. Total fertilizer nutrients applied as well as the balanced mix of nutrients affect technical efficiency positively. The contact of farmers with extension agents and/or agricultural scientists has a positive effect on efficiency. Application o farmyard manure also affected technical efficiency positively. The results imply that the investment in human capital in rural areas should be encouraged.

Analysis of Changes in the Cropping Pattern of Assam During 1965/66-1994/95:An Econometric Study

Mercydi Maibangsa and S. Maibangsa

Abstract:

Assam has experienced considerable changes in area, production and productivity of various crops since 1964-65. An attempt has therefore been made to analyze the growth rates of area, production and production and productivity of various crops and the cropping pattern changes in terms of substitution and expansion effects. The relative contribution of various components to the growth of crop output was worked out by seven factor additive model suggested by Minhas (1966). Results indicated that cropping pattern changes were in favour of food crops and the greater contribution was due to expansion effect.

The Personal and Professional Problems of Field Workers of NGOs in Bangladesh

Mokbul Morshed Ahmad

Abstract:

Field workers should be the movers and shakers of their NGOs and it is they who implement the policies of their NGOs. Yet it seems that nobody (neither the policy) makers of NGOs, nor donors, nor academics) is concerned to improve their performance by better management. There has been very limited research on NGOs field workers outside the North. This article makes an effort to highlight the personal and professional problems of the field workers of NGOs in Bangladesh, where there may be more and bigger NGOs than in any other country of comparable population. The paper draws on a field research with the front-line workers of four NGOs, their clients, immediate superiors and senior management. Field workers face personal problems such as job insecurity, financial difficulties, problems with accommodation, and family dislocation. These personal problems differ according to gender, marital status and age. Their professional problems include training workload, promotion, transfer, treatment by superiors and status at work. Apart from these job issues, field worker face problems in their external relationships such as suspicion, resistance or lack of co-operation from religious leaders and local bosses, time and resource constraints, lack of availability of suitable clients and eagerness of the clients to get financial or material benefits. It is argued that the strengths of the field workers of Southern NGOs have been largely unexplored and undervalued. This paper seeks to make recommendations for NGOs in solving these problems to make their work more effective.

Agricultural Sustainability through Empowerment of Rubber Smallholders in Thailand

B. Somboonsuke, Ganesh P. Shivakoti and H. Demaine

Abstract:

Following the economic crisis of 1997 in Thailand, rubber-smallholders along with many other farmers were forced to adjust their farming strategies and systems to maintain viability and remain sustainable into the future. One important aspect of change was empowering such smallholders to have more control over their farm, which had been until that time largely under the influence of their leaseholders and the rubber marketing system. Such empowerment involved several factors, including increased self-sufficiency, better understanding of the causal agents of their expenses and incomes, development of skills, increased participation in the decision-making processes which affected them, and increased participation in community organizations. Based on criteria of farm production and incomes, energy used, clarity of objectives, sufficient capital for necessary investment, and undertaking new initiatives to deal with problems, smallhokder empowerment has increased markedly. This paper describes the process and outcome of increased empowerment of rubber smallholders in Thailand since the economic crisis of 1997, focusing particularly on the psychological aspects of the farmers’ changing attitudes.

Contribution of Beneficiary Participation in Project Effectiveness in Watershed Management Projects: A Case Study in Shivalik Foothill Region in Northern India

Swarn Lata Arya, J.S. Samra and R.K.Aggarwal

Abstract:

Alternative, participatory or community driven institutions of integrated watershed management are being considered to realize sustainability of natural resource use in India. This unique process of gathering livelihood and environmental externalities synergises social capital and biophysical technologies being generated by the scientists and technocrats. People’s participation and empowerment in the joint management of community and private resources harmonize relative strengths of indigenous technical knowledge and degradation and equitable sharing of goods and services by all stakeholders ensure continued consolidation of the development process. An attempt has been made in the present paper to analyse and evaluate the contribution of beneficiary participation in 53 water harvesting projects in 27 villages covering 2070 families situated in the foothills of shivalik in Northern India. An input output framework was used to identify the role of participation during various stages of the project i.e. origin, planning, designing, implementation, redesigning and maintenance. The value scores and confidence scores assigned to different variables indicated that beneficiary participation increased as the project progressed chronologically from planning to implementation and maintenance stages. In other words, participation became much more necessary for project effectiveness as the activities progressed through various stages, Communication and commitment were highly correlated with project success, which calls upon good understanding between the service providers (implementing agency) and public.

Asia- Pacific Journal of Rural Development ( APJORD)

Vol. XI, December 2001, No. 2

HRD Interventions for Rural Development: Analysis of Asian Experiences

P. Durgaprasad

Abstract:

The vicious cycle of rural poverty necessitates formulation of a set of distinct but related strategies to combat the inextricably linked socio-political and economic factors that cause poverty and stunt development. Critical public policy formulation accompanied by appropriate instruments and institutions can alone usher in rural and human development on a sustainable basis. Capacity building and empowerment of the poor through imaginative Rural Development (RD) and HRD interventions in the key sectors of development such as health, literacy, education, employment, food nutrition and income generating activities hold promise for people-centred and community-based development. Of course, supplementary state support in legislations, empowerment and institution building would be a necessary corollary to the partnership mode of development and a shift towards the human development paradigms. Much of the recent developments in the West and the south-east Asia are attributable to this growing shift of p9licies, strategies and programmes in tune with the global changes in socio-political and economic reforms and their consequences. The paper outlines the problems of poverty and development in Asia even while highlighting the need for RD, HRD and Human Development, and critically analyses the related policies, strategies, programmes and results of development interventions. It summarises the past efforts and presents pointers for future development. Alternative approaches to and innovative practices in RD and HD are highlighted and the instrumentalities are elaborated with focus on poverty alleviation and RD, HRD and HD services. Greater availability of and access to basic minimum services and safety nets is emphasized.

Local Organizational Capability for Land Management: A SWOT Analysis of Organizations in the Hills of Nepal

Giridhari Sharma Paudel and Gopal B. Thapa

Abstract:

This paper analyzes the capacity of local organizations associated with land management in the hills of Nepal based on information obtained through a survey of 120 local organizations and 300 farm households. Government organizations (GOs) can help farmers to adopt suitable land management practices, but are impaired due to political interference. NGOs have made relatively better contribution to land management. However, they have not been able to provide effective services due to close-organizational structure. User groups have strong commitment and greater enthusiasm for land management. They have not been able to take advantage of these qualities due to their weak technical capabilities. Concerned policymakers should pay attention to the de-politicization of GOs democratization of NGOs, and capacity building of the user groups.

Community Based Resource Management through Social Forestry Programme of India: A Micro Level Study of Hindol Block in Orissa State

Dolagobinda Pradhan and Jayant K. Routray

Abstract:

After 1980, the social forestry programme was introduced in India to regenerate forest resource, rehabilitate wasteland and meet local needs of peoples for fuel wood demand and other minor forest produce by involving local community for social forestry project management and help sharing expected benefits. The joint management practice of social forestry by the Forest Department of the State Government and local community is seen as a positive experience although they are often shadowed with some weaknesses. This study conducted in Orissa State in India clearly demonstrates a higher degree of awareness among the communities and participation of people in the project with partial success. The study also recommends for providing a well-defined operational framework for managing social forestry activities and ensuring sharing of benefits by the people to further enhance the degree of success.

Promotion of Integrated Agriculture-Aquacultur Farming Systems in Northeast Thailand: Need for Judicious Considerations

Jharendu Pant, Harvey Demaine and Peter Edwards

Abstract:

Northeast Thai farming systems have undergone major changes over the last four decades. Agricultural development has been constrained by mismatch of agricultural interventions with rapidly changing social and economic contexts. Integrated agriculture-aquaculture systems (IAAS) have been promoted in the small-scale, resource poor farming sector in the belief that they provide both employment and restore the environment. However, promotion of IAAS is rather challenging due to the costly and lengthy transformation process and emergence of additional problems beyond the transition phase. A survey of IAAS households with varying lengths of experience in IAA was conducted in four different agro-ecological zones to identify major constraints faced by them. The survey found that biophysical constraints to IAAS farming varied with resource base, however, in all areas disease and pests were common problems in fruit and vegetable production. Households in the transitional phase (with up to four years experience) regarded biophysical and technological constraints as the major ones, while households beyond the transitional phase (with five or more years of experience) increasingly faced problems of marketing and fluctuating demand for farm products, particularly fruit and vegetables, in the local market. None of the respondents reported a problem in selling fish, indicating an inadequate supply of fish to meet the demand in local markets. Harnessing location specific, agro-based potential and linking IAA systems with small-scale agro-industries may be needed to make the increasing number of small scale IAAS viable in the long run.

Regional Variations in Health status: the Indian Case of Health Care and Economic Reforms

K. Hanumantha Rao

Abstract:

The development of health sector has become the prime concern of the state under the new economic policy regime. Any impact assessment of the economic reforms should gauge he changes in the health status in the transition phase vis-à-vis pre-reform situation. The present paper attempts to delineate the changes in health scenario across the major states with rural-urban break up. To examine the efforts of the state, the trends in public outlays/expenditure on social services and health services in per capita terms (at constant prices) were examined. A comparative static framework for analysis was adopted (3 time period analysis-1981-83, 1988-90 and 1995-97) to trace the changes taking place in respect of six key indicators of health viz, CBR, CDR, IMR, TFR, Female (effective) age at marriage (FAM) and expectancy of life. Issues like emergence of Rural-urban differentials (RUD) and deceleration in the annual growth rate(s) in regard to these indicators in the wake o new reforms were analyses have been identified. The inter-correlation analysis was attempted to identify the crucial health parameters for emphasis in the future interventions. A Composite Development Index of Health status (CDIH) was calculated and the inter-state and rural-urban disparities in CDIH values have been examined over time. The relationship between health status and welfare (poverty) was analysed using regression. These analytical findings verify the proposition that investments in health will help achieve improvements in the human well being.

Managing System within a Non-systemic Vicious Circle: Institutional Linkage Analysis to Identify the Constraints of Technology Transfer and Adoption under crop Diversification Programme in Bangladesh

Jiban Ranjan Majumder and Ganesh P. Shivakoti

Abstract:

Crop Diversification Programme is a relatively large planned public intervention in Bangladesh, which is being implemented throughout the country for the last 12 years jointly by Bangladesh Agricultural Research Institute, Directorate of Agricultural Extension. Bangladesh Agricultural Development Corporation and Department of Agricultural Marketing. The main objective of the programme is to promote the production of nutritional minor crops, such as pulses, oilseeds and tubers, through transfer and adoption of improved crop varieties and production technologies. Routine field evaluations show that the programme has hardly been able to achieve its objective, as majority of target crop varieties were not found to be adopted at the field. Level. By employing a multilevel investigation, the present study revealed that the unsatisfactory performance of the programme has been rooted primarily into institutional constraints, because the implementing agencies could not establish and maintain functional coordination among them in planning, implementation, monitoring and evaluation of technology transfer and adoption programme. On the other hand isolation of the programme from the local knowledge networks resulted in mismatching of the offered technologies with the practical field situation. Based on field findings, and alternative policy model has been suggested to improve the innovative performance of CDP in a systemic pattern.