Centre on Integrated Rural Development for Asia and the Pacific (CIRDAP)

ASIA-PACIFIC JOURNAL OF

RURAL DEVELOPMENT

Abstracting Service

Asia- Pacific Journal of Rural Development ( APJORD)

Vol.1, July 1991, No. 1

Agriculture and Rural Development in the Asia-Pacific Region: Present Scenario and Future Outlook

AZM Obaidullah Khan

Abstract:

The paper very succinctly describes the positive aspects of agricultural development in the Asia-Pacific region, urges not to be complacent with the better performance achieved in the 1980s, particularly with respect to record production of cereal harvest, high production of livestock and building of a reasonably good food stocks, and finally proposes a set of actions for maintaining the prosperity in the 1990s and distributions of its benefit to the poor and the disadvantaged.

South Asian: Those who are Left Behind-Issues and Perspectives

Nurul Islam

Abstract:

South-Asia contains 46.4 percent of the poor of the developing world and the large majority of them live in rural areas. The rural poor are predominantly small and landless farmers, the extreme poor amongst often them do mot have access to food providing minimum nutritional requirements. The mainstream thinking, regarding appropriate development strategy for alleviating poverty in these areas, seems to be veering around to the position that both economic growth and increasing social expenditures to deal directly with certain aspects of poverty are needed. This present paper concerns not so much with reducing inequality as with alleviating poverty. The paper with this end in view examines the income distribution in South-Asian countries. It suggests three inter-related sets of measures to alleviate poverty in South Asia: (1) necessity to stimulate the economic growth and at the same time to ensure that the poor participate in the benefits from the process of growth; (2) necessity to expand the social expenditure of the government on the broad-based improvement of the health, education, sanitation and nutrition of the entire-population; and (3) necessity to ensure direct measures either to transfer income or food (the most basic of the minimum human needs) or to undertake employment programmes, designed for the very poor to provide them access to minimum income.

Gender and Rural Poverty in Asia: Implications for Agricultural Project Design and Implementation

Constantina Safilios-Rothschild

Abstract:

In Asia, gender and rural poverty are inter-linked in different ways. Gender appears to be a principal criterion for the allocation of scarce resources in communities and households. The effects of intra-household and societal gender inequities leading to women’s lesser access to food, health care, education and skills for productive employment are significant with regard to poverty creation and its perpetuation. Gender inequities are also exhibited in the process of development thinking.

In Bangladesh, Pakistan and India, the trends in respect of continuing intra-household gender inequities are reflected in the allocation of scarce resources. Women are less endowed in respect productive assets that could enhance the returns to their labour.

Women constitute the central agents to the success of poverty alleviation efforts since their income meets the basic domestic needs. There is a lack of data regarding women’s contribution in agriculture. The government and donor organizations are not mainstreaming women in agricultural and other rural development programme. In most countries, women farmers are bypassed by agricultural extension.

Poverty and Gender Issues

Alexandra Stephens

Abstract:

Rural women have often been the victims of development processes and outcomes, as evident from the increasing duration of their work-day, the widening gap between male and female incomes and gradual trend towards their greater responsibility in the management of household affairs. In Asia and the South Pacific, they hardly get recognition as farmers or are paid as such, although half of their working hours is involved in food production. Their health is affected by working longer than men. Lack of medical care, food and social services results in higher mortality rates for women.

Women become the principal victims to environmental degradation. Women farmers seldom get the opportunity of farm management training. In South Asia, schooling for girls is very limited. They are highly constrained in upward mobility due to their low education and access to information. Hence, their contribution in decision-making is vitally hampered.

Women get very negligible access to the economic means, when compared to men. Their participation in rural organization is poor. In the developing world, women farmers are almost outside the ambit of high-tech agricultural scenario.

A women farmer is, generally, in darkness about land-use planning. Women are not adequately involved in the recent efforts towards post-harvest loss reduction at the farm and village levels. The concepts of food standards and quality control are beyond the reach of rural women.

FAO’s Action Plan centres round four spheres of life, namely, civil status, economic, social and decision-making. Each sphere contains its individual strategy for enhancing women’s status at each level of the society.

The author concludes that women-themselves should rise to the occasion and take necessary steps to redress the problem of gender imbalance.

Food Policy and Rural Poverty Alleviation in India

R. Thamarajakshi

Abstract:

Food policies determine the ‘exchange entitlement mappings’ of rural labour, the most deprived categories of the population, and thus the state of nutrition and poverty in an economy. The effectiveness of food policies can be traced through the nature of their implications for the rural labour market. This paper attempts to examine the effect of food policies in India on the rural poor with special reference to agricultural labour in the post-seventy period when technological change got established in two important cereals viz., wheat and paddy. India has a long experience of Government intervention in foodgrain market and has been supporting farmers and providing food security to the poor. She has also been successfully implementing wage employment programmes for rural labour besides income generation programmes for the poor. It is observed that totality of factors, such as the introduction of high yielding varieties, expansion of irrigation, investments in infrastructure, delivery of credit and critical inputs on easy terms and a good extension service, along with a supportive price policy have made possible a sustained growth in the production and productivity of agriculture in general and of wheat and paddy in particular with consequential decline in cereal barter terms of trade in the last two decades. Growth in agricultural production has been accompanied by growth in employment in agriculture although employment elasticity in that sector has been less than unity and is declining. Further, the rural employment programmes of the Government have not only been generating substantial quantum of additional employment but also improving the bargaining power of the rural labour. As a result, real wages have risen, The Public Food Distribution System has been making special efforts to cover remote and for-flung areas and distributing foodgrains to tribal population and the target groups of rural wage employment programmes at subsidised rates Cereal prices have been moderately stable. The dally status unemployment rate in rural areas has shown a decline in this period. Government’s agricultural production and price policies, rural employment policies, public distribution policies and most importantly the overall growth of the economy have all combined to bring down rural poverty in a significant measure.

Monitoring and Evaluation Mechanism of Agrarian Reform and Rural Development in Selected Asian Countries

Durga Prasad Paudyal

Abstract:

Agrarian Reform and Rural Development programmes play a key role in the countries of Asia-Pacific region. The present sectoral approach to assess the impact of these programmes, give inadequate and often partial pictures, because a number of ministries/departments and their field level agencies are involved in the implementation. Therefore, there is a need to design a comprehensive M&E mechanism at the national level with proper linkages with the concerned agencies at national, sub-national and project levels. This article explains the existing M&E mechanism of four Asian countries and argues that the M&E mechanism development by CIRDAP, may generate a better data-base.

Asia- Pacific Journal of Rural Development ( APJORD)

Vol.II, July 1992, No. 1

How Poor are Women in Rural India?

A.K.Rajuladevi

Abstract:

Women constitute and increasing percentage of the poor and households headed by women suffer severe deprivation, and lack access to resources necessary to improve their lot. The process of proletarianisation and pauperization, caste structure etc, play important roles in determining female participation in work; female work participation rate is highest not only amongst the poorest households but also among the scheduled castes and scheduled tribes.

This paper, through review of relevant literature shows how poverty focused strategies mostly provide channels through which new ties of dependence and exploitation are established. It discusses further, that as the economic status of poor women’s households decreases, they combine domestic work with wage work. It analyses those regional factors which act as powerful determinants o rural household strategies for the deployment of female labour other than caste and household economic status. This paper also examines whether the increase in rural women’s labour force participation is a sign of deepening poverty which has forced them into the labour market for survival or an indication of new economic opportunities which are forcing households to move against the cultural milieu and send them out to work. Finally, the paper focuses on gender based inequalities in access to employment opportunities and explores the intra-household gender discriminatory practices in the distribution of food, health care and education within poor households.

Participatory Planning for Rural Development and Disaster Management in Bangladesh

Hiroyuki Nishimura

Abstract:

Based on empirical studies conducted in several villages in Bangladesh, the paper attempts to identify the types of disasters that occurred in the past and the effects of such disasters, especially floods on agricultural activities, It them goes on to examine how disaster management could be incorporated into rural planning focusing on the need to adopt a participatory approach to make such planning effective.

Managing Development Through Institution Building

Salehuddin Ahmed

Abstract:

Impact of various efforts for improving the socio-economic conditions of the poor in the developing countries can be maximized through proper management and implementation of development programmes/projects. Effective project management and implementation are also crucial for sustainable development. Institutions, which encompass entities at the local level, community level, regional level, national level and in parastatals, project management units and so on are integral parts of project management and implementation. However, despite strong statements about the essential role of institutional development, and the realization of its potential contribution to development efforts, the issue of institutional development has received relatively little attention by policy makers, planners and implementators of programme. This paper presents some issues on institutional development which are currently being focused on. In the context of developing countries, institutional development should not be looked at merely from a technical point of view and should not be taken merely with a distinct project entity. An interdisciplinary approach to institutional development, not a partial and iterative approach, is required for efficient management of development programmes/projects.

Mining Resettlement and rural Development in Malaysia

Hassan Naziri Khalid

Abstract:

This article focuses on the formation of mining resettlements in tin-rich Kinta Valley Malaysia, comparing this type of resettlement with other types of resettlement schemes under the rural development programmes in that country. Mining resettlements are set up as compensation from mining companies to villagers whose lands are acquired for mining of tin. As these mining resettlements are under taken by private ventures, they are set up in an adhoc manner with little consideration for humanitarian needs, in contrast to the government sponsored resettlement schemes. Mining resettlement could be improved by coordinating the efforts of the mining companies and government agencies carrying out rural development programmes.

Farmers’ Use of Communication Media in Adopting Agricultural Technologies-a farm level study in Bangladesh

M.A.Kashem, A. Halim and M. Qulfikar Rahman

Abstract:

The present study was designed to analyze the relative contribution of various communication media in the transfer of modern agricultural technologies to farmer. Data were collected from a sample of 150 farmers from two villages under Sadar upazila of Mymensingh district from 23 April to 25 May 1991. A weighed score was used in order to compute the relative use of different communication media. The frequently used media were Block Supervisors, neighbour, veterinary hospital, on-farm trial, radio etc. in adopting different agricultural technologies. However, individual contact media were also used. Agricultural knowledge, competence as farmer and age were significantly related to the adoption of rice technologies; innovativeness and behaviour intent were significantly related to livestock production; behaviour intent was significantly related to fish culture; and agricultural knowledge, competence as farmer and age were significantly related to overall agricultural technology adoption.

Asia- Pacific Journal of Rural Development ( APJORD)

Vol.II, December 1992, No. 2

Can and Should Social Science Disaster Research Knowledge and Findings from Developed Societies be Applied in Developing Societies?

E.L.Quarantelli

Abstract:

The paper considers the extent to which social science research findings about disasters primarily derived from developed countries can and should be applied in developing societies. It is first noted that the conceptual distinction made between developed and developing social systems may lead to an underestimation of the existing capabilities for preparing for and responding to disasters in developing nations. The general differences between organizational structures in developed and developing societies are then noted because organizations everywhere are the prime actors in disaster preparedness and response. However, most of the paper discusses six major observations with respect to the extent to which empirically based research findings about the behaviour of organizations in highly urbanized and industrialized societies can be extrapolated to or applied in developing social systems. The paper concludes that it is not a matter of either/or, and that there are certain social features in developing societies which might lessen the necessity of importing disaster social technology from developed countries.

Community-Based Resource Management as a Strategy for Sustainable Development

Francisco P. Fellizar, JR

Abstract:

Community-Based Resource Management (CBRM), a strategy aimed at achieving sustainable development, has been conceived as a process by which the people are given the opportunity and/or responsibility to manage and utilize resources with a concern for future needs. CBRM is practiced in many countries including the Philippines. Through a presentation of CBRM undertakings in the Philippines, the paper attempts to identify the features of CBRM, focusing on the experience of such projects. The paper concludes by identifying the elements of CBMB and factors critical to its adoption and implementation.

Subsistence farming in Asia: Income and Resource Allocation

Salehuddin Ahmed and Shafiqur Rahman

Abstract:

Most of the households in the rural area of the Asia-Pacific region operate at a subsistence level. In as much as the basic decision making unit in the rural sectors of these countries is the household, an understanding of its resource and income allocation pattern is a necessary prerequisite for the formulation of policies and strategies of rural development. The policies and programmes of agricultural development pursued so far not have been directed towards the receiving and delivery mechanisms of the agricultural sector as well as the small and marginal farmers. Empirical evidence has indicated that the subsistence farmers have derived less benefits from agricultural development programmes compared to the medium and the large farmers. The study of rural subsistence farm households therefore becomes necessary to ensure that government programmes for agricultural transformation, including programmes for the creation of non-farm employment are based on empirical evidence. This has been attempted in this paper through the analysis of income and expenditure behaviour of farm households and a discussion of the allocative efficiency of production inputs.

Asia- Pacific Journal of Rural Development ( APJORD)

Vol.III, July 1993, No. 1

Development of Rural Industries and Transformation of China’s Rural Economy

Momtaz Uddin Ahmed

Abstract:

The paper examines the contributions of rural industries in the process of modernizing transformation of the Chinese rural economy. Rural industries in China experienced phenomenal growth, ranging between 20-25 percent in the post-reform period and played a crucially important role in absorbing surplus rural labour, raising employment and income status of rural households and in facilitating the development of a modern industrial base in rural townships. The economic dynamism displayed by rural industries in China has been a consequence of the encouragement provided by the government to the development of market economy and private enterprise systems in the post-reform years. The Chinese experience of rural industrial development seems instructive for the agriculture dominated developing Asian countries which are grappling with problems of surplus labour absorption, raising income and living standards of the rural poor, and keeping rural-urban migration within reasonable limits.

A Framework for Analysis of Macro-Micro Transmission Mechanisms in Bangladesh: some preliminary considerations

Mustafa K. Mujeri, Quazi Shahabuddin, Salehuddin Ahmed

Abstract:

Since independence, Bangladesh has been subjected to policy interventions and shocks that profoundly influenced its macro-economy and future growth prospects. During recent years, the pursuit of structural adjustments (SA) as an integral component of macro-economic policy has raised a number of issues relating particularly to consideration of equity and alleviation of poverty. The assessment and analysis of the impact of SA on poverty requires the establishment of links between such policies and the welfare of households involving analytical framework of macro-micro transmission mechanisms. This article examines the major conduits of macro-economic transmissions in Bangladesh and presents the preliminary outline of a general equilibrium model to analyze the issues and indicates the data and information requirements for its empirical implementation.

Questions of Gender in Development Planning: Women’s Experiences in a New Settlement of the Mahaweli Project in Sri Lanka

Joke Schrijvers

Abstract:

Women settlers in a new settlement of the prestigious Mahaweli River Development Scheme in Sri Lanka felt that they were living “like wild animals in a jungle.” Deprived of the support of their relatives and without direct access to the means of production, they became dependent upon their husbands. Violence in the scheme increased considerably. Yet these women should not be seen as helpless victims of a development planning based on biased gender conceptions. The thoughts and actions of female settlers, however restricted and invisible from the outside, to some degree co-determined the actual outcome of the planning. What was their impact, and what were the limitations of their activities behind the screens? How to support women as active participants in their own right, from the very start of a development intervention? In order to answer such questions new research methodologies are needed, which combine gender-awareness with a bottom-up, dynamic, actor-oriented perspective.

Asia- Pacific Journal of Rural Development ( APJORD)

Vol. III, December 1993, No. 2

People’s Participation: Some Methods for Measuring Intensities Across the Development sectors

Lokendra Prasad Poudyal, Karl E. Weber

Abstract:

Participation encompasses assorted features of work. Some of these ate intensive, while others are moderate or peripheral in terms of their conduciveness to the achievement of set goals. They pertain to specific stages of the planning process, namely, decision making, implementation benefit sharing, or evaluation. These distinct features of work influence participation differently. Some works are induced by family pressure, while others are backed by community needs. Works also differ according to their occurrence; some relate to singular activities, while others are related to recurrent activities. Examining the intensity of participation under these diverse conditions is methodically difficult. As great as the difficulties are, as strong is the necessity of measuring intensity as it could provide a basis for planning participatory development.

This paper discusses a few methods of measuring participation. These methods are empirically appraised to see their applicability across different sectors of development. The results obtained from such appraisal are verified with qualitative conditions that prevailed at the field. Those verifications revealed that for participation to become more operational, specific approaches commensurate with the nature of work are required. In this vein, adoption of a sectoral approach to participation appears sensible.

Integrated Rural Development-Problems in Methodology and Institutional Environment

Dirk Van Dusseldorp

Abstract:

The concept of Integrated Rural Development (IRD) has remained on the stage of development fashions for a long period of time. Its success is difficult to measure due to the ambiguous way in which IRD is defined, the numerous and often conflicting objectives it has to realize and the lack of conceptual clarity in its preparation and implementation. The main purpose of this paper is to highlight some of the basic problems encountered in IRD and draw some lessons from past experiences.

The paper begins with an overview of the historical background of IRD. Then the intellectual basis on which every planned development effort has to be based, namely the dynamic and integrated analysis of the situation that has to be changed purposefully and directionally is discussed. As this analysis has to give an insight into the causalities (the processes) that led to the present situation (the theories in planning), the problems of multi-and inter disciplinary research that should provide such an analysis are identified. A discussion of the institutional environment in which the IRD programmes have to operate follows focusing on coordination, decentralization and participation.

The view that the results of planned development activities, such as the preparation of plans, are only administrative devices for a legitimate allocation of scarce resources and to organize action that is accepted by all involved is compared with another view where planned development is seen as an arena for the struggle for scarce resources. Finally, the paper indicates some lessons that can be learnt from past experiences in the field of IRD.

The North-South Economic Interaction and the Environment

S. Mansoob Murshed

Abstract:

The global nature of environmental problems requires the cooperation of many countries and national governments to find solutions that are acceptable to both the North and the South. International environmental policies suggested include, among others, the payment of natural debt, debt for nature swaps, globally trade able permit schemes in green house gas emissions, and the use of trade policy to promote environmental goals. This article analyses North-South interaction within this context, cautioning that the concern for the environment could become an additional weapon for protectionism and for further penalizing the South. The South is effectively decoupled from meaningful participation in the international economic system. The environment is an exception. The cooperation of the South in solving environmental problems will be forthcoming only if other areas of interest to the South, such as trade and transfers, are also addressed.

Asia- Pacific Journal of Rural Development ( APJORD)

Vol. IV, July & December 1994, No. 1 & 2

Land Tenure and Production Organization of Agriculture in China, Vietnam and Lao PDR

S.A. Subramani

Abstract:

This article is based on studies commissioned by FAO in 1991-92, to examine the patterns of land tenure and production organization in the former centrally planned economies of China, Vietnam and Lao PDR, and on the proceedings of the FAO-CIRDAP workshop on land tenure and production organization of agriculture in China, Lao PDR, Vietnam and some selected countries of Asia, held in Bangkok, Thailand from 20-22 April 1993. Arranged in four sections, the first section of the article provides an overview of the tenurial system and production organization of China, Vietnam and Lao PDR, and the other three sections present the country specific studies.

Development from Within-A Rethinking on an Alternative Development Path

K.V.Sundaram

Abstract:

The article presents the view that in the context of current macro economic policies, the role of the state in local and regional development is being reduced and the domain of responsibility of the people and the local institutions is being increased. The regional and local communities therefore must find their own development centres of gravity to respond to the new policy changes.The concept of Integrated Rural Development (IRD) has remained on the stage of development fashions for a long period of time. Its success is difficult to measure due to the ambiguous way in which IRD is defined, the numerous and often conflicting objectives it has to realize and the lack of conceptual clarity in its preparation and implementation. The main purpose of this paper is to highlight some of the basic problems encountered in IRD and draw some lessons from past experiences.

Participatory Development-The Community Information and Planning System (CIPS) Management Experience of CIRDAP

S. Narayan

Abstract:

Beneficiary participation in project design, execution and monitoring is considered to be a crucial factor in project sustainability. The methodologies adopted for involving beneficiaries in project activities vary widely across countries, sectors and projects. A methodology for participatory development pioneered by CIRDAP, the Community Information and Planning System (CIPS), focused on generating participation of the rural poor in the development process through a wide spectrum of interrelated activities which include participatory data collection, planning and implementation of productive activities. The initial testing of this model by CIRDAP in all its eleven member countries has been followed by its application in the action research projects initiated to achieve socio-economic development in target villages. This article reviews the CIPS methodology with reference to the CIRDAP action research projects. Focusing on implementation aspects. It seeks to identify the extent of adherence to the CIPS methodology and the possible reasons for country specific variations in project management and implementation, and to draw conclusions relevant for future participatory projects.

Local Orientation of Rural Small Scale Industries: an empirical study from Ciomas Subdistrict West Java, Indonesia

Tulus Tambunan

Abstract:

Based on a sample survey of nine village in Ciomas subdistrict West Java province, Indonesia, the article examines the degree of local orientation of rural small scale industries (RSSIs) in terms of consumption and production linkages with the local (rural) economy. It addresses two hypotheses: (1) RSSIs in a less developed rural area or in a village further away from a city have a higher degree of local linkages than those in a more developed rural area or in a village closer to a city; and (2) agriculture is the most important local source of raw material and demand for RSSIs.

Impact of the Integrated Rural Development Programme on the Rural Poor-A Case Study of the Cuttack District in India

Krishna Chandra Rath and Jayant Kumar Routray

Abstract:

The Integrated Rural Development Programme is one of the major programmes implemented by the Government of India to alleviate rural poverty. This study is an attempt to analyze the impact of the IRDP on the rural poor in a coastal district (Cuttack) of Eastern India and to bring out some of the important issues related to the success and failure of the programme. Some remedial measures are also suggested to make the programme more effective. The study reveals that the subsidy component of the IRDP package is a strong and possibly the only motivating factor for both beneficiaries and (IRDP) officials in implementing the programme. The target population is neither made aware of nor actively involved in, the process for delivering inputs and services. In view of this, the recommendations proposed to strengthen the IRDP include building awareness and information dissemination, sanctioning capital directly to the beneficiaries to enable them to purchase the required inputs and invest appropriately, withdrawing the subsidy component from all the projects, strengthening the monitoring system, and taking into account the viability of the project and entrepreneurship quality of the target groups for extending financial support.

Asia- Pacific Journal of Rural Development ( APJORD)

Vol. V, July 1995, No. 1

Gender Aspects of Irrigation Management: the Chhattis Mauja Irrigation System in Nepal

Margreet Zwarteveen & Nita Neupane

Abstract:

Although irrigated farming in the head end of the Chhattis Mauja irrigation system in Nepal is increasingly the responsibility of women, female farmers do not formally participate in the schemes organization. However, women’s non-involvement as formal members in meetings, and the lack of female representation in the organization does not seem to negatively affect their access to irrigation services. On the contrary, women succeed extremely well in getting their irrigation needs accommodated. This is due partly to the very fact that they are not formally participating in the scheme’s management; this allows them to take more water than they are entitled to and to contribute less labour to maintenance than they should without being punished. Because women are not recognized as members, the organization faces difficulties in enforcing its rules on women. At the same time, female farmers cunningly make use of the prevailing gender ideology, although it does not reflect realities as perceived by women themselves, does strengthen them in their negotiations for more water and in their attempts to minimize their contributions to the scheme’s maintenance.

Gender in Agriculture: an Asian Perspective

B Bhattacharya and G Jhansi Rani

Abstract:

The increasing number of women who are joining the agricultural work force in Asia has underscored the urgency of making agricultural policy research and extension more gender sensitive. This article attempts to present the realities of women’s involvement in, and contribution to, the agricultural sector by an analysis of the gender roles in Asian agriculture and by building a profile of farming women by highlighting their agricultural workload, task range, wage disparity and role intricacies. Through a review of agricultural policies and programmes it attempts to bring out the inherent gender blindness and male orientation in policy development, research and extension undertakings, tracing the roots of such gender biases to attitudinal, conceptual, and methodological limitations. It is suggested that both macro and micro level information be synthesized into a database to sensitize policy makers and programmes to gender issues in agriculture.

Women Farmers’ Worsening World: can Gender Analysis Help?

Alexandra Stephens

Abstract:

A death of data and misleading information, when data are available, mask the disadvantaged position of women farmers and the reality of their lives. While the database has to be improved to reflect the reality of their lives ad to justify fundamental changes in the way resources are assigned, used and distributed, of equal importance is to see women in relation to men through gender analysis. In general, the Women in Development (WID) approach of implementing women specific projects often approved by ‘soft’ criteria ignoring market values and prices further marginalized women and left male dominance intact. The Gender and Development (GAD) approach attempts to “mainstream” women by an analysis of gender specific issues including the division of labour, decision making, access to and control over resources which are factors of production, and the constraints around production (and reproduction) by men and women. This article elaborates these issues.

Twenty Years of WID and Rural Women of Nepal

Meena Acharya

Abstract:

Empowerment is a process which enables women to meet both their practical and strategic needs. The process of empowerment must increase women’s access to economic opportunities and resources; increase women’s political power; raise women’s consciousness about the symptoms and causes of oppression; and strengthen women’s self confidence. Based on two major sources of information, this article reviews the extent of empowerment of Nepalese women, with reference to the four dimensions of empowerment identified above.

Rural Women, Poverty and Development in Pakistan

Shahnaz Kazi

Abstract:

Despite gender specific problems of access to social and productive resources, the concern with poverty has mainly focused on the extent and incidence of poverty and has implicitly assumed that all members of a poor family are equally disadvantaged. However, there is increasing evidence that women and girls in poor households bear a disproportionately high share of the burden of poverty. Their deprivation is due to their lower endowment of land and productive assets, discrimination in the labour market, and limited access to social services. Government plans and policies, which have incorporated a special focus on women since the late seventies, have been limited in scope and have failed to address the critical constraints to raising their productivity and improving their access to education and health services. This article reviews the available information on gender differences in intra- household distribution of resources including nutrition and health care, differential access of rural women to education and employment. In concludes with an assessment of recent initiatives that have been taken to extend productive and social resources to women.

Rural Women and the National Renovation Process in Vietnam

Le Thi

Abstract:

The “Doi Moi” or “ economic renovation” introduced in Vietnam at the end of 1986 has had a strong impact on economic production, as well as on the lives of the people of all strata in the country. The change to a market economy resulted, among others, in the households becoming independent economic units. Rural areas have witnessed many positive changes; living standards of many have improved. These developments have also had an impact on rural women. This article attempts to describe the repercussions of the economic reforms on their status, ability to cope with a new system of production organization health, education and training.

Is Women’s Loan Repayment Behavior Different than Men’s? An Analysis of Gender Differentials in Loan Repayment in Four CIRDAP Member Countries

Fahmeeda Rahman Wahab

Abstract:

Although credit is considered to be an important catalyst in poverty alleviation, the majority of the rural poor have limited access to institutional credit. Most disadvantaged in this request are women. In order to design viable credit programmes for rural women, it is necessary to ascertain the critical factors which are likely to contribute to ensuring adequate access to credit and timely repayment. This article attempts to identify these critical factors focusing specifically on whether, and to what extent, factors determining loan repayment behaviour of women differ from those of men. The article provides empirical evidence from four countries of South and Southeast Asia, that considerable differences in loan repayment behaviour exist between men and women as well as between people belonging to different sub-classes within the poor. The article then suggests directions in policy reform which could accommodate these differences in order to facilitate the access to institutional credit by rural poor women.

Integrated Approach Towards Small Family Norm, Income Generation and Empowerment of Rural Women-A Case Study

G.N.Reddy, A. Rizwana and C.K.Gariyali

Abstract:

Empowerment of women, especially in traditional societies is a slow process requiring simultaneous action on many fronts. Activities aimed at overcoming physical isolation of women and encouraging their participation in community based projects as well as increasing their awareness can have positive impacts on their status. At the same time, attitudinal changes in the community to wards women through a process of consultation and conscientization is also important to this process. This article presents a case study based on an action research project titled Comprehensive Population and Family Planning Activities in Integrated Rural Development initiated by CIRDAP, where project activities had the effect of bringing about major changes in the status of women through a process of empowerment.

Asia- Pacific Journal of Rural Development ( APJORD)

Vol. V, December 1995, No. 2

Institutional Development for Managing a Rice Processing Complex in the Philippines

Letecia N. Damole & Ebel Wickramanayake

Abstract:

One of the most important issues in integrated rural development projects which contain physical infrastructures is sustainability. Hence, the Integrated Jalajala Rural Development Project in the Philippines incorporated an institutional development component in the project, jointly undertaken by a government and two non-government organizations, to form a local level organization and strengthen its capability to manage a rice processing complex. This paper assesses the immediate effects of the institutional development activities on building organizational capability and shows that the achievements are below the expected level.

The Applications of Geographical Information Systems (GIS) in the Management of Rubber Smallholdings: a case study of Malaysia

Ruslan Rainis and Abdul Halim Hashim

Abstract:

The planning and management of rubber smallholdings require a vast amount of spatial as well as attribute data The existing manual methods of data handling can no longer cope with these requirements. The recent advances in geographical information systems (GIS) provide an efficient tool for data input., management, analysis, and display of spatially related data suitable for the planning and management of rubber smallholdings, In this paper, three examples of GIS applications in the planning and management of rubber small holdings are described: smallholder information retrieval/ query, the management of replantation programme applications evaluation, and monitoring the potential impacts of future urbanization on smallholdings, Problems encountered during the project are also described

Participatory Process and Watershed Management-A Study of the Shiwalik Foothill villages in Northern India

Swarn Lata Arya and J.S. Samra

Abstract:

The present paper aimed at critically reviewing and analyzing four selected community based watershed development projects in the foothill villages of Shiwaliks in Northern India with a vie to identifying people’s participation in them and drawing lessons useful for securing their involvement. The linkages between common resources (CPR), private property resources (PPR), and quality of life (income levels) were analyzed using the statistical clustering technique. The characterization of village economies and their present status revealed the differences between actively participated watersheds, planned and managed by the communities (Sukhomairiand Bunga) and the others under a bureaucratic setup (Chowki and Tibbi). In Sukhomajri and Bunga, the cropping pattern changed in favour of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) barseem (Trifolium planning and management of rubber smallholdings require a vast amount of spatial as well as attribute data The existing manual methods of data handling can no longer cope with these requirements. The recent advances in geographical information systems (GIS) provide an efficient tool for data input., management, analysis, and display of spatially related data suitable for the planning and management of rubber smallholdings, In this paper, three examples of GIS applications in the planning and management of rubber small holdings are described: smallholder information retrieval/ query, the management of replantation programme applications evaluation, and monitoring the potential impacts of future urbanization on smallholdings, Problems encountered during the project are also described.

An Assessment of the Training and Visit Model of Agricultural Extension Work in Bangladesh

Mohammad Hassanullah and Muzaffer Ahmad

Abstract:

The Training and Visit Model (TVM) was introduced in 1976 in Rajshahi, Bangladesh as a part of the worldwide effort to increase the effectiveness of agricultural extension services in the developing countries. Due to high operational cost, the TVM became a controversial issue and one recent evaluation found it far less efficient in trasferring technologies than what was expected earlier. In this article the TVM of agricultural extension work was assessed in terms of its manifestations over environmental and organizational variables which exhibited significant influences on the performance of an agricultural extension organization (AEO) as compared to the Advisory Service Model (ASM) and the integrated Extension Model (IEM) of extension work. The sample of the study constituted 887 farmers and 437 service personnel. Findings revealed that the TVM was introduced in an ecologically disadvantaged but socio-politically advantaged environment. Implementation of the TVM in its first phase failed to increase or decrease the magnitudes of those variables which influence performance of an AEO either positively of negatively as compared to the other two models. As a result, performance of an AEO under both the TVM and the ASM was similar inspite of the fact that the TVM had a better theoretical construct as compared to the ASM and was introduced with international support. Performance of AEOs under both of these pure models was significantly lower than that of an AEO adopting an IEM of extension work. Similar performance of AEOs under the TVM and ASM was, therefore, due to the failure of the model to manifest environmental factors and management practices which exhibited significant contributions to performance. In designing and implementing a model, factors contributing to performance need to be taken into account.

Some Recent Strategies on women in Development and Poverty in the Philippines

Florentina A. Tan

Abstract:

Poverty and economic marginalization are issues that are of paramount importance for women in the Philippines. Lack of access to productive inputs such as credit and land are linked to women’s poverty while inequality between men and women in the economy is also linked to poverty. In this context, the two strategies adopted by the government to address poverty is to provide assistance, mostly through credit, in establishing income generating projects, and to protect the natural resources from which the poor derive their income. However, while a strategy of poverty reduction is inefficient without an accompanying WID strategy, WID is not entirely a poverty issue. This article reviews the impact of two projects, the Second Micro Credit Project and the Fishery Sector Programme, on Women.

Effects of Irrigation on Household Income and Food Security in a Deeply Flooded Area in Bangladesh

Mustafizur Rahman, Soumendra Nath Saha and Rezaul Karim

Abstract:

The effects of irrigation on household income and food security were examined by a study of 200 households in five villages in a deeply flooded area in Bangladesh. The average household head was an illiterate owner cum tenant farmer, having a secondary source of income, a household of 7.65 members, a farm of 2.65 acres, indebted to money lenders or institutions, and in deficit in household food production. The findings indicate that although irrigation increased the total cropped area and cropping intensity the increments were small. Irrigation replaced less productive local variety crops by more productive high yielding varieties and low value corps by high value crops. The adjustments were large in the dry rabi season but small in the wet kharif season and resulted in more specialization of cropping in the irrigated condition. The small effect of irrigation on cropping was due to the deep flooding nature of the area which prevents triple cropping and restricts cultivation of high yielding variety rice in the summer even with irrigation. Irrigation, however, increased net annual income and access to rice, and increased substantially food grain production and calorie production of the households. The average household did not fulfill the recommended dietary allowances of calories of its members and small farm households fulfilled only one half of the allowances in the non-irrigated condition. They fulfilled 293 per cent and 173 per cent of the allowances respectively in the irrigated condition. Irrigation reduced the small farm households’ share of net income, access to rice, food grain production and calorie production but the reductions were not that large.

Asia- Pacific Journal of Rural Development ( APJORD)

Vol. VI, July 1996, No. 1

Sustaining Food Security for Rainfed Ecosystems in Asia

Mahabub Hossain

Abstract:

Since 1966 when the release of IR-8 triggered the green revolution in humid and subhumid tropics in Asia, rice production has increased at 2.4 per cent per year, faster than the rate of population growth. The increase in production has come mostly from investment in water resource development that converted the variable monsoon-dependent rice growing environment into an irrigated ecosystem suitable for the modern varieties developed by rice scientists. The rice yield has remained low in rainfed lowlands and uplands, at 2.0 ton per hectare compared to 5.0 ton for the irrigated ecosystem. Although mist Asian countries have declared themselves as self-sufficient in rice production, food insecurity and poverty are widely prevalent in regions with unfavourable rice growing environments. Increase in supplies from the existing irrigated land may not help these people in rainfed systems to meet their food needs because of the lack of purchasing capacity and alternative opportunities for productive employment. Further expansion of irrigation is constrained by rising costs and growing environmental concerns. Scientists must take up the difficult challenge of developing resistance to various abiotic stresses in high-yielding rice cultivars, and improving farming practices that increase productivity of the rice-based systems, to help people in rainfed environments achieve and sustain food security.

A Model for Analyzing Gender Relations in Two Tribal Communities in Orissa, India

Smita Mishra and Reidar Dale

Abstract:

Gender relations among tribal communities in India have not been much studied so far because of the assumption that these communities are fairly homogeneous and egalitarian. This article provides a rationale for studying gender relations in two tribal communities in Orissa, India. A modal is developed to address gender relations at the household level and a Gender Relations Index is computed. This index illustrates the nature and complexities of gender relations among the tribal communities and the power each gender enjoys not only at the household level but also in relation with the State and the market. Additionally the labour contribution of each is measured by a time use index which is linked to the Gender Relations Index. The differences in gender relations and time use are further analyzed and explained in the text.

Village Livestock and Disease Control in Northern Thailand: A Survey Examining Socio-economic Factors

T. Murphy and C.A.Tisdell

Abstract:

The article report the results of a survey of 135 village households in Northern Thailand owning livestock. The general socio-economic characteristics of the households are specified, including the nature of employment of household member, the types of land use, and the incomes of households. Data were obtained about who villagers ask for help when their livestock are sick, and the sources of their information about diseases in livestock. Particular attention is given to bovines (cattle and buffalo), pigs and poultry. Information is provided about ownership of livestock in the villages, husbandry of livestock, the occurrence and control of livestock diseases, and the results are analyzed to enable some general relationships to be reported. These should be taken into account when formulating public policies to control livestock diseases in rural areas.

Rethinking Food Security in the Context of Development Paradigms

Kamal Nayan Kabra

Abstract:

The article attempts to identify some major limitations of the prevalent concept of food security which arises, the author contends, basically owing to the impact of the presently dominant techno-economic growth paradigm and the resulting policy package. This concept of food security preserves and fosters inequity, dependence, isolated sectoral approach and makes the exercise a prisoner of more of the same syndrome, may be better planned, and delivered with larger allocations in the light of the observed shortcomings. Based on the premise that as basic a need as secure access to food can neither be separated from nor pitted against the other needs and spheres of human-social existence, it outlines an alternative concept and policy based on an alternative development paradigm.

Asia- Pacific Journal of Rural Development ( APJORD)

Vol. VI, December 1996, No. 2

Disaster Reduction and Preparedness

G.N.Ritchie

Abstract:

The author in this article seeks to move the focus of responsibility and action for disaster reduction and management away from those in the fields of scientific prediction and humanitarian relief, and on to those with responsibility for development planning and administration in government.

He argues that disaster reduction and effective management when disaster strikes, demands: comprehensive analysis of development plans, the disaster threats to them and the probable affects of development projects on the environment and society; thoroughly co-ordinated disaster preparedness and contingency plans; extensive management information systems relevant to development and to disaster response and recovery. The importance of education, administrative staff training and public information programmes, as essential of effective disaster preparedness, whether against natural or technological hazards and threats, firmly into the domain of development planning, whether rural or industrial. It also stresses these matters as being sovereign national responsibilities not those of the UN or other aid donors.

Disaster Mitigation through People’s Participation: Role of Local Self-government Institutions

AVS Reddy, B K Thapliyal , K R Sastry

Abstract:

The article argues for the integration of disaster management with long term development planning, and for the adoption of a holistic rather than a segmented approach to disaster mitigation. An important component of this approach is popular participation. As popular participation does not occur spontaneously, local government institutions, together with non-government and voluntary organizations can be given a greater role in mobilizing people and local resources to complement government efforts at disaster mitigation and relief. Taking the example of panchayati raj institutions in the South Indian state of Andhra Pradesh, the article deals with the mechanics of involving people in relief and mitigation planning before, during, and after the occurrence of natural disasters like cyclones and floods.

Politicizing Rural Development: Lessons from India’s West Bengal

Prabhat Datta

Abstract:

This article seeks to present the different aspects of the rural development programme being implemented by the Left Front government in West Bengal against the backdrop of India’s rural development experience. It has been argued that politicization or rural development is characterized by strong political will, radical ideological back up, dismantling of the traditional power structure and continuous monitoring and supervision by well-knit cadre based parties constituting the Left Front. While the core of this model is land reform, the key to the success of the programme is grassroots mobilization through political panchayats and peasant organizations. It has also been emphasized that the power of the bureancracy need to be curtailed as far as possible to practice any pro-poor rural development model.

Stagnating Productivity in Crop Agriculture: The Quest for Sources of Growth

Indrajit Roy

Abstract:

The article reviews growth in productivity of basic food cereals in Bangladesh during the period from 1970/71 to 1993/94. The major source of rice production growth came from the shift of area from local rice varieties to modern varieties (MVs) or expansion of MV rice into newer areas. The yield of rice MVs declined or stagnated during this period which was most notable for Boro rice. Yield of wheat almost entirely planted with MVs also decreased during the 1981/82-1993/94 period. The major factors identified as responsible for decelerating growth in yield frontier are declining soil fertility, decline in efficiency in use of fertilizer and other inputs, increasing intensity of pest outbreaks, seed quality and varietal replacement at the farm level. The study suggests several options to reverse the declining trend of productivity growth in those crops.

Loan Repayment Behaviour Among the Rural Poor

Lao PDR and Malaysia

Abstract:

Availability of and access to credit by the poor are critical elements in enhancing their productivity and income. However, despite the universal acknowledgement of the significance of rural credit, the institutional coverage, compared to its demand remains sparse.

In order to help improve the access to institutional credit for the rural poor and make credit programmes for them viable, CIRDAP initiated the research project titled Loan Repayment Behaviour Among the Rural Poor in five countries, namely Lao PDR, Malaysia, Nepal, Pakistan and the Philippines with financial support from the Government of Japan. The major objectives of the project were to review selected rural credit programmes to ascertain the accessibility of the rural poor to credit to identify factors that contribute or constrain the recovery of loans, and to suggest essential elements of viable credit programmes for the rural poor. The project comprised a research and an action research component. Action programmes at the field level were to test, validate and /or modify the proposed credit model involving seed money-disbursements, use, monitoring, supervision for repayment of loans, while the research component focused on the general socio-economic characteristics of the country concerned, its poverty situation, policy framework for rural development in general and poverty reduction in particular, the credit delivery system/programmes and the loan repayment behaviour of the rural poor carried out under different credit programmes of government and non-government organizations and with respect to different categories of borrowers.

Based on the coutry findings, the study re-examined the policy assumptions vis-à-vis rural credit and suggested rational and sustainable policy alternatives.

In this issue the highlights of the country reports of Lao PDR and Malaysia are presented.

Asia- Pacific Journal of Rural Development ( APJORD)

Vol. VII, July 1997, No. 1

Development Discourse and Post-Colonial Theory

Uma Kothari

Abstract:

This paper begins with an examination of the colonial nature of the development discourse focusing on examples of the masculinist and Eurocentric narratives that are articulated within it and goes on to present post-colonial critiques in order to explore the process of the decolonisation of Development Studies.

Development Studies have remained largely untouched by recent contributions made in other disciplines (Geography, Social anthropology, Literary Criticism) which challenge the centrality of Western knowledge and forms of representation. In this paper it has been suggested that these debates offer Development Studies an opportunity to move beyond its colonial narratives and practices.

For the poor in many countries of the ‘Third Word’, the 1980s has been described as a lost decade. The poor have got poorer and inequalities persist and have often become exacerbated. There has also been in the last 10 years some debate on what has been termed the ‘impasse’ in development theory. This recent questioning of processes of development has been brought about by the recognition of the failure of much development planning to reduce in qualities and alleviate poverty, and by post-modern, post-colonial and feminist critiques which have leveled challenges at the masculinist, Eurocentric discourse articulated in much development theory and practice.

This has led some people to (re-)consider what meanings we can realistically attribute to development in the 1990s and beyond.

Participation: Connotations and Content

K. R. Sastry

Abstract:

This paper is the result of a close look at the nuances of people’s participation in development. Since it has become a dominant theme of our times, its salience in all developmental efforts has to be reiterated. Various aspects—economic, social, political and administrative—would influence the policy makers in enlisting people’s participation. In the Indian model of micro-level planning, participation of people in the development process has been a bit hazy. An attempt is made here to juxtapose several different kinds of dimensions to facilitate a comprehensive understanding of the phenomenon. An operationally serviceable definition might be encapsuled thus: ‘Participation encompasses institutional and psycho-social processes of development, oriented to maintaining and sustaining an atmosphere conducive to higher levels of sharing and involvement in socio-political, economic and administrative spheres on the part of citizens, particularly those belonging to the lower or weaker socio-economic strata.’

Macro-economic Reforms and Poverty Alleviation in Sri Lanka

Gamini Wickramasinghe and T A Dharmarathne

Abstract:

The article aims at reviewing the socio-economic development trends in Sri Lanka that have taken place following the economic reforms introduced in 1977 in terms of poverty alleviation considerable Literature is already available which compares the economic performance in the pre-1977 period with that of that of the subsequent period.’ However, the package remains to be studied from the perspective of poverty alleviation. Furthermore, hardly any studies have been done which specifically focus on the past decade. This article attempts-

ü To identify the trens in the socioeconomic developments following SAP;

ü To analyses the macro-economic policies and its impact on poverty;

ü To review the poverty alleviation strategies and programmes;

ü To assess the adequacy of policy framework for poverty alleviation; and

ü To suggest suitable recommendations for improving the policy framework on alleviation of poverty.

Asia- Pacific Journal of Rural Development ( APJORD)

Vol. VII, December 1997, No. 2

Loan Contracts in Agrarian Credit Markets under Rationing, Spillover and Tied Situations

K. N. Selvaraj and N. Srinivasan

Abstract:

The article analyses the nature of loan contracts in agrarian credit markets under rationing, spill-over and tied contract. The credit market may not operate in equilibrium due to the existence of credit rationing in the formal credit market. The standard disequilibrium econometric model is employed to examine credit rationing in the formal credit market using primary survey data. The spill-over effect is assessed using demand-supply equations specified with intercept dummy. Credit rationing is found pervasive among the small farmers in region I and substantial among all groups in region II. Traders play an important role in informal credit market and a refusal to accept a tied contract creates adverse effect on production. The interest rate elasticity for private credit demand is found positive and inelastic. The cost of borrowing indicates that farmers incur larger extra costs in the process of obtaining a formal loan as compared to informal loans. However, the effective rate of formal credit is less due to subsidized interest rate.

Decentralized Planning Framework for Public Interventions: Lessons from Kerala’s Untied Funds Programme

K. R. Sastry and K. H. Rao

Abstract:

The purpose of this paper is to critically examine the design deficiencies and operational problems of the state sponsored Untied Funds Programme (UFP) essentially aiming at need-based local level planning in Kerala. Since, it is expected to both generate as well as to sustain a participatory development, an attempt is also made: a) to assess the potential to UFP to hasten the decentralization process by increasing the demand for it (decentralization) at the grassroots level in as much as equipping the local people and institutions with management/professional skills; and b) to suggest and analytical framework with Grama Panchayats as fulcrums of (local) development initiatives with convergence of services as a key area of consolidation and sustainability, among others.

Poverty in Sri Lanka: nature, incidence and measurement issues

D. Gamage

Abstract:

This paper examines the incidence and trends in poverty in Sri Lanka. It also highlights some issues related to poverty assessment and availability of data for poverty analysis in the country. Some correlates of poverty such as employment and unemployment are also examined in the paper. The paper is organized into five sections including the introductory section. In section 2, conceptual and measurement issues in poverty are examined as a prelude to a discussion of a much more pragmatic and methodological issue involved with measuring poverty in Sri Lanka. The third section is devoted to examining such issues along with a set of identified correlates. Poverty measurement issues with special reference to Sri Lanka are examined in the fourth section. Subjects dealt in the fourth section include the comparability of existing data and their adequacy in understanding poverty. The final section is devoted to drawing the implications of the analysis.

Urbanization, Migration and Poverty: some recent debates and their policy implications

K. N. Kabra

Abstract:

Urbanization, migration and informal sector issues are prominently related to both rural and urban poverty. An examination 9of the basic logic, inter-connections and implications of theses issues suggests that the wisdom rooted in the hypothesis of inevitability and desirability of modern industrialization, urbanization and growth without a trickle-down paradigm postulates a symbiotic relationship between industrialization-urbanization on the one hand, and the rural sector and poverty on the other,. The analysis tends to suggest that these views are grossly oversimplified and mis-interprete some of the critical dimensions of the crisis of hitherto followed growth-centred policies, particularly in the rural sector, especially owing to their urban-industrial bias. The tendency to give higher inter se priority to urban poverty vis-à-vis rural poverty is basically flawed, more so when it is treated as a pro-rural step. They spring from a misreading of the nature, process and impact of the policies concerning urbanization, rural to urban migration and informal sector. Indirect and round about methods of dealing with underdevelopment and poverty are rarely adequate and are often counter-productive. A study case for primacy of rural development along with that of the needs and interests of rural poor is made as a part of an integrated development strategy; which is also desirable form the point of alternating urban poverty

Asia- Pacific Journal of Rural Development ( APJORD)

Vol. VIII, July 1998, No. 1

Spatial Patterns of Agricultural Development and Their Investment Priorities in India

T. Haque, S.R. Hashim and Shanggen Fan

Abstract:

The article examines the spatial patterns of agricultural development in the background of significant progress achieved in terms of both output and productivity growth during the past few decades in India. In order to adopt the available new technology for ensuring food and nutritional security for the growing population and to remove regional imbalances in agriculture, the potential for the development of rainfed areas are highlighted along with the need for location specific strategies for development. The measures required to bridge the productivity gaps between irrigated and rainfed areas are also identified. In this context, the article deals with issues of productivity potentials of different regions and suggests specific investment priorities for various agro-economic zones keeping in view the spatial patterns of agriculture production and their requirements.

Malnutrition and Development: a case study of Sri Lanka

Mohottige U. Sedere

Abstract:

The article discusses malnutrition, a prevalent problem in South Asia, in the light of a household survey of nutritional status of children in Sri Lanka. The discussion brings out a new wave of thinking to explain malnutrition in a country like Sri Lanka where social sector indicators relation to literacy, mortality, life expectancy etc, are at an exemplary level, closer to the levels recorded in the developed countries, The article, giving reference to a new development phenomena described as First and Second Cycles of Development, interprets the household survey data to support and demonstrate that malnutrition in Sri Lanka is not caused by the conventional factors often cited in the literature. A range of new factors relating to the characteristics of the Second Cycle of Development such as middle class mentality, development drives, housing etc, and new demands and situations created by the open market economy are discussed to explain the prevalence of malnutrition.

An Appraisal of the Adarsha Gram Project in Bangladesh

Syed Marghub Murshed and Syed Mansoob Murshed

Abstract:

The Adarsha Gram project, a rural resettlement and poverty alleviation programme, has been in existence since 1988; initially set up and funded by the Government of Bangladesh, it has since 1991 received assistance from the European Commission. There appears to be an under valuation of the contribution of the Government of Bangladesh, as the land provided does not enter into the measured project expenditure. The results of the evaluation are based on responses to a questionnaire, obtained from a representative sample of the total Adarsha Gram population. As far as the measurable targets of the project are concerned success has been achieved in terms of access to loans, savings formation, education and skill acquisition. The lessons learnt from the AG-1 phase of the project point to a serious re-appraisal of the principles behind the financial assistance to NGOs. There could be a sharper focus on service provision, with greater concentration on fewer, but more important aspects of each service category. The emphasis should be on quality. Education is, perhaps, the most important service, due to its contribution to the long-term growth of the economy.

Alternative Agriculture in Thailand and Japan

Sununtar Setboonsarng and Jonathan Gilman

Abstract:

The paper examines the current state of alternative agriculture, and their future potential in Thailand and Japan. Six of the most widespread and/ or influential alternative agricultural systems in the two countries are documented, each one in terms of the systems practices, theme (whether the emphasis is on spiritual or technical/marketing aspects of farming); and present status where applicable. Also included are discussions, applicable to the Asian region of the costs involved in converting to alternative agriculture and of the future potential. A literature review is presented to document other studies on alternative agriculture in the two countries and to help establish a definition of the term ‘alternative agriculture.’

Minor Irrigation, Input Response and Crop Output: the study of a block in a North Bengal District, India

Sudip Chakraborty

Abstract:

The Government of West Bengal began installing minor irrigation equipment during the eighties through Central as well as World Bank’s assistance in specific locations. The present study seeks to find the impact of such projects on crop output, input use and their productivities on a particular crop, namely, pre-monsoon paddy of traditional variety in a selected irrigated area. The study finds that per acre output of the crop at farm gate prices are Rs 2946 in the irrigated area. The study finds that per acre output of the crop at farm gate prices are Rs 2946 in the irrigated area as compared to Rs 2225 in the non-irrigated area. The study concludes that India’s rural development policy should be reoriented to lay high priority to rural infrastructural development with assured irrigation network.

Asia- Pacific Journal of Rural Development ( APJORD)

Vol. VIII, December 1998, No. 2

Access to credit and the Effects of Credit on Resource allocation Decisions and Productivity in Indian Agriculture

K. N. Selvaraj, K. Chandran and K. R. Sundaravaradarajan

Abstract:

The article presents the findings of research conducted in two regions of Tamil Nadu in India on credit access and its effects on resource allocation decisions and productivity. Both the regions depend on farming and allied activities. The results indicate that both small and large farmers borrow from formal credit institutions and the growth of formal credit does not necessarily lead to a decline in informal credit despite high interest rates. The study reports that access to both formal and informal credit is crucial for adoption of improved variety and wage payments. The access to formal credit also plays an important role in decisions leading to pesticides and farm yard manure use. The study suggests the need for revision of the existing scale of finance taking into consideration the increased cost of inputs to help the farmers to use optimal levels of inputs and increase the productivity of crops.

Rural Poverty and Importance of Small-Scale Industries: the case of Indonesia

Tulus Tambunan

Abstract:

Small-scale industries (SSIs) in Indonesia are considered highly important, particularly is terms of their contribution to creation of employment opportunities and income generation for the rural poor and the development of the rural economy in general.

The Indonesian government, in recognition of such importance, has designed special policies and assistance has been provided to support the SSIs in the country. The paper reviews the Indonesian experience of the development of SSIs in the rural areas and associated policies. The paper suggests that successful development SSIs requires not only special policies and good institutions. A proper combination of such policies and institutions may have a greater and sustainable long-term impact than the specially designed policies on the development of SSIs, through the creation of a conducive business environment

Food Security and Sustainability under Internationalization of Agriculture: some reflections and scope for action with reference to India

Sukhpal Singh

Abstract:

Food security refers to both physical and economic access to adequate, safe, nutritious and relevant food at all times for all people to lead an active and healthy life. The food security at the national level does not necessarily ensure household food security, which, in turn, is no guarantee for individual food security. The concern for food security has been heightened in the presence of policy environment of liberalization, privatization and globalization (LPG) which directly of indirectly affect food security issues.

In the context of internationalization of agriculture, the paper examines the food security issues in India its various dimensions, and the likely implications of the new economic regime on food security. It is argued that though there has been improvements in food security situation over the past decades in physical terms (food availability), the trend is not very encouraging as significant sections of the population still suffer from malnutrition and under-nutrition. The GATT and SAP are likely to further weaken the food security situation, especially through their impact on the farm sector and people’s incomes and employment. The unsustainable farming systems are not capable of providing nutritious and sustainable supply of food in terms of both relevance as well as purchasing power. The paper suggests both national as well as local level initiatives to strengthen the food security situation.

Farmers’ Organizations in Malaysia: perspective, role and outlook

Abdul Aziz Abdul Rahman

Abstract:

The article traces the historical development of cooperatives and farmers’ organizations (FOs) im Malaysia and examines the role of FOs in agricultural and rural development. While the FOs are observed to perform a number of important functions e.g. marketing of agricultural produce, service delivery and inputs supply, contract works and special projects, the average volume of business and amount of profit generated per member are relatively small compared to some private sector organizations e.g. plantation companies. This, however, should be viewed in terms of salient differences in objectives and operations of FOs as compared to such organizations. The article points out the important role that FOs can play in sustaining agricultural and rural employment, and as catalysts in generating backward and forward linkages that could create new employment opportunities in the rural areas. The role of the FOs is vital not only in ensuring livelihoods to a large proportion of the rural population but also in dampening the rural-urban migration in the country.

Rural Small and Micro-Enterprises in Pakistan: issues and options

Rana Nasir Ali Khan

Abstract:

The paper discusses the role of rural small and micro enterprises in Pakistan in terms of employment generation, poverty alleviation and creation of linkages to accelerate the process of rural development. Considering the importance of the sector, the government has created several channels of finance and other support organizations. Besides, the Investment Policy 1997 allows for foreign investment in agriculture and includes agro-based industries as priority manufacturing activities. The paper highlights the constraints and suggest policy options for promotion of rural small and micro-enterprises in Pakistan. In this context, the need of reorientation in four key areas e.g. skill, credit, marketing and government policies are emphasized.

Asia- Pacific Journal of Rural Development ( APJORD)

Vol. IX, July 1999, No. 1

Development of Rainwater Harvesting for Domestic Water Use in Rural Sri Lanka

R. de. S. Ariyabandu

Abstract:

Adequate good quality water is a scarce commodity to most parts of rural Sri Lanka. Often, rural water supply options have failed to achieve its potential due to technical, financial or management reasons. Rainwater harvesting as a rural water supply option was introduced in 1995 under the community water supply and sanitation project in Badulla district. Subsequently, rainwater as a source of domestic water was successfully accepted in areas where other water supply options hae failed due to various reasons. Since introducing rainwater harvesting, water security assurance of the beneficiary communities in many parts of the country have improved quality, time with family members and given them the opportunity for entertaining friends and relations, which was restricted prior to utilization of rainwater. Thus, the concept of using rainwater for domestic use is increasingly being accepted in rural Sri Lanka where the livelihood of user communities have improved with respect to quality, time and adequacy of demestic water.

Functioning of Informal Credit Market and Its Linkages:Evidences from Rural Credit Markets of South India

K.N.Selvaraj and K.R.Sundaravaradarajan

Abstract:

The study is directed towards functioning of informal credit market and its relation with other markets. Explicit and implicit costs of various linkages were estimated to examine the nature of linkage. Demand-supply model for private credit under equilibrium condition was specified with intercept dummy to assess the effect of tied transaction. Probit regression was employed to analyze the factors determining the acceptance or rejection of tied contract. There was large-scale expansion of credit in the informal credit market and trades dominated it. Among the output linked transactions, cash to output linkage was found beneficial. A refusal to accept a tied contract had adverse effect on production. The interest rate elasticity of demand for private credit was found positive and inelastic.

Participation of Rural Poor in Government and NGO Programmes: a comparative study

Dr. Muhammad Samad

Abstract:

In recent times. Governments and NGOs are providing continued support for ensuring people’s participation in the development process. Like many developing countries, participation of the rural poor as target groups in development progrmmes initiated by various government agencies (GAs) and NGOs is being encouraged in Bangladesh since mid-seventies, in particular. This paper is an attempt to examine the participation of the target people in terms of their involvement in planning, decision-making implementation, benefit sharing and evaluation relating to the development programmes of GAs and NGOs from a comparative point of view. It deals particularly with the different aspects of participation of the rural poor in the credit operation and social development activities of BRDB and BRAC as a GA and as an NGO respectively working in Bangladesh. It is observed that the target people of both the GA and NGO programmes are aware of their needs and problems, and themselves prepared to participate for improvements of their socio-economic life. Both GAs and NGOs are playing stimulating roles in making their participation systematic, effective and more beneficial to them. The rural poor are facing several problems in their participation in decision-making, implementation, benefit sharing and evaluation of the development activities. Many of the problems identified by the present study are redressable. However, the research suggests that more improvements are needed in strategy of GA compared to that of NGO for increased and meaningful participation of the rural poor in the development activities

Corporate Participation in Rural Development A New Model Suggested

B. Yerram Raju

Abstract:

Several studies have been conducted on the impact of rural development projects and all of them have directed their attention only to the role of government sponsored programmes. Poverty alleviation programmes had made the heavily dependent on government and the bureaucracy. The Government of India accordingly took the initiative through a fiscal policy measure to entice the corporate entities both in the public and private sectors to take up rural development projects. This paper intends to set out a model for partnership between the government and corporate entities that are engaged in the pursuit of rural development.

In a few organizations, the corporates promote a non-governmental organization involving people to manage the designed activities, sometimes, by compulsion. Compulsion-because they have displaced the people for setting up their projects (NTPC). Non-governmental organizations assisted by private donor agencies or even the government also implement rural development projects. The government and the corporate entities have a common goal. If the people involved, the government and the banks formulate well designed projects and the companies provide the scheme specific and general infrastructure, would it not lead to better synergies? These are the issues that are sought to be resolved in the new model that is suggested. The author cites a few examples of successful collaboration between the Indian corporates and the government.

The model suggested does not, however, envisage any structural dis-entanglement of the companies from the present pattern of their association with rural development projects.

Impact of Irrigation Management Policy on Environment: Lessons from Sri Lanka

M.M.Mohamed Aheeyar

Abstract:

What is likely to e a most critical resource in the near future for agricultural development in Sri Lanka. Sustainable management of water resources is imperative to avoid the envisaged water crisis . Although agriculture sector is main water user of the country, water has many alternative uses and water shortage in increasingly experienced in many locations. In the meantime, 35 percent of rural population are deprived of safe water for drinking purposes. Thus, a sustainable policy for irrigation management seems to be an indispensable component of the national water policy.

Participatory irrigation system management policy has been the major irrigation policy in Sri Lanka since 1988. The major objective of the objective of the policy was to reduce the public sector involvement in the irrigation management and irrigation management and irrigation management turnover. The paper examines the effect of reduced government involvement in sustainability of irrigation infrastructure and the policy’s impact on environment.

The results of the study reveal that the current level of resource mobilization for system maintenance raise the question of sustainability of the infrastructure and the policy has not properly sustainability some important environmental issues such as maintenance of drainage canals and physical sustainability of infrastructure. The challenge thus faced at present institutional that could be solved with a planned intervention providing special attention to the environment.

Microfinance in the Selected Asian Countries: an overview

Shabbir Hussain

Abstract:

Access to financial resources by the poorer sections of the population has been and is being considered a major problem. In 1950s and 60s, a number of financial institutions proved unable to meet the challenges of institutional and financial sustainability and their outreach to people at the grassroots level. In this scenario, a variety of initiatives of micro-finance combining financial and social intermediation have emerged during the recent decades. Analysis of such initiatives undertaken in Africa, Asia, and Latin America suggest that there is no single model that can be prescribed for all circumstances. Rather, adjusting financial institutions and their operations to local conditions implies diversity and innovation.

With the exemplary success of Grameen Bank in Bangladesh, and programmes like Self-Employment Women Association (SEWA) in India, Bank Rakyat (BRI) IN Indonesia, micro-credit has been recognized as a poor-friendly development intervention for poverty alleviation. It has become increasingly popular among various government and non-government organizations (NGOs) in the region. There have been a lot of discussions on this topic, which is particularly relevant to today’s economic context when most of the Asian countries are suffering from economic crisis.

This paper presents an overview of various initiatives of microfinance particularly in some selected Asian Countries. Some successful models of microfinance have been identified and analysed in terms of their approach, and lessons learnt. Major programme of microfinance in the selected countries have been listed as an annex to the paper. These include the approach and output in terms of coverage and outreach in their respective countries. Certain issues have also been identified concerning sustainability, scaling up, access to funding sources, internal and external governance. The paper highlights some factors contribution towards the success of microfinance in the region and the increasing role of NGOs microfinance.

The paper suggests some critical features and measures in the last section under future directions. These include: availability and accessibility of credit, institutional development, GO-NGO collaboration, NGO Bank linkages, implementation and the need of regional cooperation in microfinance through the regional organizations like Centre on Integrated Rural Development for Asia and the Pacific (CIRDAP)

Asia- Pacific Journal of Rural Development ( APJORD)

Vol. IX, December 1999, No. 2

Foodgrain Production in Bangladesh as Influenced by Trends in Use of Inputs and their Management at the farm Level

Indrajit Roy

Abstract:

This paper investigates the trends of foodgrain production in Bangladesh over the period 1990/71-1997/98 as influenced by availability and management of inputs at the farm level. Usage of inputs was influenced by gradual reduction of the public sector dominance since the 1980s in the provision of agricultural support services. Compared with 1981/82-1989/90, growth rates of foodgrain production and input use decelerated during 1990/91-1997/98. When growth scenario of the use of inputs for the two time periods is compared with that of production, it becomes evident that deceleration in the growth of foodgrain production in 1990/91-1997/98 was much more pronounced than deceleration in the use of inputs during the same period. In other words, the response to deceleration in the growth of input usage in terms of a downturn in the growth of foodgrain production was much deeper than is often apprehended.

Production structure and Technical Efficiency Analsis of Sericulture in Pakistani Punjab

Munir Ahmad and Tanvir Khaliq Shami

Abstract:

The objectives of this paper are to study the sericulture production structure and the analysis of farm-level technical efficiency measures. The results show that most of the farmers involved in this enterprise are illiterate. This industry is further characterized by: inappropriate rearing sheds, complete lack of extension service, dependence on government forest for mulberry leaves-facing peak season shortage, supply of poor quality silkworm seed and improper processing and marketing facilities. Labour shares more than 70 percent of the total cost of production and, however, promises reasonably high return on investment. Stochastic production frontier analysis indicates that the sericulture enterprise faces increasing returns to scale. Average technical efficiency is found to be 0.88 with a minimum of 0.3 and a maximum of 0.98 leaving significant scope for improvement in productivity and thus profitability. The results further show that technical efficiency is positively associated with the size of the acitivity.

People’s Participation and Forest Management in India: few emerging issues

V. Reddappa Reddy

Abstract:

Forest protection and management have undergone a metamorphosis over the years in India. Forest protection practice gave way to forest management. And People’s participation in forest management has emerged as the latest development paradigm, with a robust christening., namely, Joint Forest Management (JFM). The track record of this practice, however, did not show the expected results at macro level. Due to people’s participation in forest management few issues have prominently emerged that need to be addressed immediately. The dearth of literature explaining the impact of people’s participation in forest management calls for a detailed discussion on these issues. The paper is primarily based on the experience in participatory rural appraisal, field observations and evaluation of the programme. The paper traces back the history and mechanism of people’s participation in forest management. The issues that have already found place in related literature are delineated here. The participation of women and weaker sections in JFM, alternative sources of income and employment for forest displaced people, transfer of burden ton non-JFM areas, practice of usurping usufructs by few powerful sections and sustainability component in JFM practice are some of the issues considered here.

The Mystery of Mis-Targeting in Micro Credit

P. Subrahmanyam

Abstract:

The potency of micro credit as anti-poverty programme is now widely recognized. Considering the past trials and tribulations of micro credit programme, the paper scans the emerging models for the effective delivery of micro credit. It also presents different methods employed for identification, screening, segregation and selection of eligible clientele under micro credit programme. It then raises two fundamental issues: i) why is it that micro credit is unable to reach the hardcore poor? And ii) why is it that the implementing agencies are unable to prevent the ‘encroachment’ of non-target groups into the areas earmarked for the poor? It presents some evidence on the mis-targeting in Grameen Bank and BRAC micro credit programmes. While describing the ‘tense balance’ between the target group and the no-target group on the one hand, and between the government and the NGO/micro finance institutions on the other, the paper suggests that there is a need for future research to find satisfactory solutions to these issues.

Measuring Women’s Empowerment: some methodological issues

Tapash Kumar Biswas

Abstract:

The major aim of this article is to develop comprehensive indictors for measuring women’s empowerment and to formulate a suitable index for measuring the level of women’s empowerment. In order to develop indicators of women’s empowerment. Different journals, books an reports have been consulted. In this article eleven indicators of women’s empowerment with different issues under each indicator have been discussed. These indicators are: mobility decision making power, autonomy, economic security and freedom from domination awareness, participation in public protests and political compaign, contribution to family income, reproductive right, exposure to information and participation in development programmes. Considering all these indicators, and issues under each indicator the empowerment index has been developed to measure he level of empowerment of women in the context of Bangladesh.

Asia- Pacific Journal of Rural Development ( APJORD)

Vol. X, July 2000, No. 1

Assessment of factors Influencing Agricultural Transformation Process.: evidence from Midhills Region of Nepal

Surendra B. Thapa and Ganesh P. Shivakoti

Abstract:

In the mid-hills of Nepal, as in many developing countries, the gradually developing urban centre and increasing food demand for agricultural produce due to population growth and to early development activities have induced farmers to re-orient their subsistence farming to systems of growing crops for markets. Based on household survey and group discussion, the results indicate that in areas where rapid changes in farming systems is occurring, farmers are expanding their private landholdings and increasing their market participation through replacing local rice and maize varieties by improved one with improved livestock management practices, irrespective of caste, which is often considered a social barrier to development. Off-farm wage labour has also increased to the point where it contributes up to one-half of total household income. Multiple regression identified income from different farm enterprises and the ratio of improved to loc determining the level of commercialization.

Determinants of Household Earnings in rural Economy of Thailand

Rajendra P. Shrestha and Apisit Eiumnoh

Abstract:

A study was carried out in the Sakae Krang watershed, a fragile watershed of Thailand, with the objectives of documenting the nature of agricultural production systems in lowland and upland areas and to examine the determinants of gross earnings of rural households. A household survey was conducted to collect primary data by administering a structured questionnaire to sampled households from lowland and upland. The upland production system, in general, is mire vulnerable than the one of lowland in terms of agricultural production. Factors affecting the gross earnings of lowland and upland households are different in nature and magnitude. Besides crop and livestock-based earnings, which were common for both lowland and upland households, more factors appeared to have contributed to the gross earnings of upland households. The significant determinants of gross earnings of upland households were sources of farm and non-farm income, education and environment awareness, irrigation, land tenure status, and an accessibility, fertilizer application, non-farm earning, expenditure on livestock were found to be significant.

Economic Analysis of Peri-Urban Milk Production System Based on Findings from a Survey of Small Dairy Herds Located Around Islamabad City

Muzaffar Iqbal and R. H. Usmani

Abstract:

Data regarding various economic parameters of small dairy herds/ farms located in the pari-urban areas of Islamabad city were collected through a survey. A total of 88 farms located in 7 peri-urban pockets were included. Majority (74%) of the farmers interviewed in the survey kept buffaloes for milk production and, almost all of them sold milk mainly in the Islamabad City. Farmers purchased freshly calved buffaloes brought from distant areas, maintained them for one lactation, and sold them on body weight basis as they got dry. The main purpose of this study is to analyse whether it is economical to sell dry buffaloes at prices based upon their body weight or to maintain them for future lactations. Through gross margin analysis, it has been found that farmers are profitably operating their dairy business and it is economical for them to replace their dry stock with freshly calved buffaloes.

Institutions for Efficient and Equitable Use of Groundwater: Irrigation Management Institution and Water Market in Gujarat, Western India

M. Dinesh Kumar

Abstract:

Groundwater irrigation organization and water markets have been in existence in north Gujarat for many decades. This paper is based on a study carried out in a village called Manund in Patan district of North Gujarat, where a large number of Groundwater Irrigation Organistions are functioning. The study shoes that these organistions display the characteristics of strong and effective institutions for managing shared resources, in terms of the rules and regulations, members awareness, transparency in dexision making, conflict resolution mechanisms, degree of equity in access and efficiency in the use of resources.

Development Strategy of Rural Small-Scale Industries with a Cluster Approach: a case of Indonesia

Tulus Tambunan

Abstract:

Small-scale industries (SSSIs) in Indonesia are very important, especially as viewed from their contribution to the creation of employment opportunities and the development of rural economy. The most significant aspect aspect of industrial organization of SSIs in Indonesia is the prominence of SSI clusters; most of them are located in rural areas. As the development of the cluster is one of Indonesian government’s strategies to develop SSIs, there are many clusters across the country which develop with the support from the government. The paper examines the development if SSIs’ clusters in Indonesia and discusses main factors determining the dynamic performance of a cluster. The paper concludes that the performance of a cluster is not mainly determined by government support facilities, but by other factors such as technology used and existing networks, external as well as internal, amongst the entrepreneurs in the cluster.

Asia- Pacific Journal of Rural Development ( APJORD)

Vol. X, December 2000, No. 2

Additionality, Fungibility, Convergence and Income and Substitution Effects of Micre-credit: Findings of an empirical study in Andhra Pradesh, India

P. Dayachari, P. Subrahmanyam and G.R. Reddy

Abstract:

Additionality of credit, especially from formal agencies (priority sector lending programmes, as they are called in India). Tends to reduce the credit gap depressing the prevailing rates of interest in the informal segment of the credit market. This process leades to a reduction in the segmentation of the credit market often leading to extensity and purity. Fungibility buttresses this tendency. This phenomenon is described as convergence culminating in substitution and income effects, the benefits of which are harvested by borrowers. These effects are analysed by the method of comparative statics based on an inductive investigation of 166 sample households from Nellore district of Andhra Pradesh in India. The indifference curve technique innovated by JR Hicks is also used to demonstrate these effects. Though the income and substitution effects are considered position-and size-neutral, their magnitudes show a marginal variation across groups. Our analysis showed that the substitution effect has a built-in bias towards the richer strata, whereas the income effect shows a stronger effect in the non-delta village and among the weaker strata of society. There is a need for future research on these areas.

Market Analysis and Development of Strategies: a case study from Samal Municipality of the Philippines

Lin Zhen and J.K. Routray

Abstract:

There is a need to develop marketing facilities and services in the market town like Samal in the Philippines. However, market development is influenced by a number of factors, such as inefficient market operation , poor management, financial instability, and insufficient mode of transport. Thus, the local markets in Samal are not so attractive to vendors and consumers as markets in other towns. The inter-linkages among local markets are very weak in terms of the consumer and commodity flows. The contribution of market to local economy is very low. The benefits from market operation were not as much as expected. The study recommended the strict implementation of government policies, the preparation of an improved Municipal Market Code, etc. The local government should coordinate and work together with private sector on the one hand, and market vendors and consumers on the other in solving the aforementioned problems.

What did they need and what did we bring? An analysis of the impact of giving tenurial rights to encroached land on rural development: an example of Sri Lanka

S. Gamlath

Abstract:

The popular view that providing land titles could motivate small farmers to increase their agricultural production through increased capital investment has been examined in this study using a project in southern Sri Lanka. Applying both quantitative and qualitative methods, it was attempted to examine whether the anticipated benefits were achieved in this project. The findings suggest that though uncertainty of land security has been a problem for farmers, without addressing other related issues, expected benefits form the project could not be reached just by providing land titles.

Community Management and Water Quality in Rural Water Supply System in Nepal

B. S. Bhandari and B. W. Wickramanayake

Abstract:

This paper critically examines the issues related to the implementation and functioning of community managed rural drinking water schemes in Kavre and Bahlung Districts of Nepal. The results are based on studies of drinking water projects of non-government organization (NGO), international non-government organization (INGO) and government organization (GO) implemented in Nepal during 1986 to 1997. The data used in the study were based on review of reports and field survey in the year 2000. The discussions focused more on assessing the water quality and effectiveness of Water User Committees (WUC) of 179 Drinking Water Supply (DWS) schemes. The awareness of existing inequalities and their social and economic consequences have intensified in the project interventions for improving the general welfare of rural population, as well as for a more efficient use of drinking water. This paper concludes that awareness of safe drinking water and preparing communities before planning and construction of water systems is a prerequisite for the long-term effectiveness and sustainability of drinking water systems. The management of the user group committee is like wise crucial in DWS project.

Institutional Opportunities and Constraints in the Performance of Farmer-Managed Irrigation Systems in Nepal

N.N. Joshi, E. Ostrom, G.P. Shivakoti and W.F. Lam

Abstract:

In this paper, we briefly overview the institutions involved with the interventions in the irrigation sector development along with the process of intervention in Asia in general and Nepal in particular. The we discuss methodological procedures employed in the study. We then describe the context of irrigation management and examine the social and institutional factor affecting performance of farmer and agency-managed irrigation systems. Based on the analysis of 231 farmer-and-agency managed irrigation systems in Nepal, the important result of the study is that farmer-managed irrigation systems with stronger institutional bases such as effective imposition of fine, social sanctions and employment of local monitors created conducive environment for rule following and mutual trust among the users and yielded higher irrigation performance. The policy implication of the study is that the social and institutional support are important aspects of irrigation management; and thus, improving irrigation management suggests a socio-technical approach emphasizing variations in both physical structure and human dimensions of user activities which can produce productive, equitable, cost-effective and ecologically sound irrigation performance.

Asia- Pacific Journal of Rural Development ( APJORD)

Vol. XI, July 2001, No. 1

Non-Timber Forest Products on Shifting Cultivation Plots (Khoriya): A Means of Improving Livelihood of Chepang Rural Hill Tribe of Nepal

Bishnu Hari Pandit

Abstract:

In view of the possible contribution of Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFPs) to enhance economic condition in areas unsuitable for field crop cultivation, this article examines the contribution of NTFPs domesticated on shifting cultivation Plots (called Khoriya in Nepali) to household economy of Chepang Communities. The study is based on the survey of 120 “ Chepang” households and group discussion held in a small mountain watershed of Nepal divided into two elevational zones. The analysis begins with the examination of variation in the socio-economic condition of Chepang communities in upper and lower elevational zones then, extends into exploring relationship between several socio-economic variables and income from NTFPs grown on shifting cultivated lands. The results indicate increasing NTFP cultivation and income from lower to higher altitudes. There is a good prospect for alleviating pressure on forest resources through the promotion of NTFP on degraded watersheds of the mountains of Nepal.

Technical Efficiency Analysis of Pakistan Agriculture with Special Reference to Chemical Fertilizer Use

Ghulam Mustafa Chaudhry

Abstract:

The study uses farm level input-output data for 1997-1998 and analyses the technical efficiency of Pakistani farmer with special reference to fertilizer use. The Cobb Douglas frontier production function incorporating technical inefficiency components model was estimated using information regarding 2315 sample farm households from the selected districts of Punjab, Sindh and Northwest Frontier Province of Pakistan. Education of the farm operator and irrigation source has a more pronounced effect on technical efficiency. The tenant operated farms are more efficient than those operated by owners or owner-cum-tenants. Total fertilizer nutrients applied as well as the balanced mix of nutrients affect technical efficiency positively. The contact of farmers with extension agents and/or agricultural scientists has a positive effect on efficiency. Application o farmyard manure also affected technical efficiency positively. The results imply that the investment in human capital in rural areas should be encouraged.

Analysis of Changes in the Cropping Pattern of Assam During 1965/66-1994/95:An Econometric Study

Mercydi Maibangsa and S. Maibangsa

Abstract:

Assam has experienced considerable changes in area, production and productivity of various crops since 1964-65. An attempt has therefore been made to analyze the growth rates of area, production and production and productivity of various crops and the cropping pattern changes in terms of substitution and expansion effects. The relative contribution of various components to the growth of crop output was worked out by seven factor additive model suggested by Minhas (1966). Results indicated that cropping pattern changes were in favour of food crops and the greater contribution was due to expansion effect.

The Personal and Professional Problems of Field Workers of NGOs in Bangladesh

Mokbul Morshed Ahmad

Abstract:

Field workers should be the movers and shakers of their NGOs and it is they who implement the policies of their NGOs. Yet it seems that nobody (neither the policy) makers of NGOs, nor donors, nor academics) is concerned to improve their performance by better management. There has been very limited research on NGOs field workers outside the North. This article makes an effort to highlight the personal and professional problems of the field workers of NGOs in Bangladesh, where there may be more and bigger NGOs than in any other country of comparable population. The paper draws on a field research with the front-line workers of four NGOs, their clients, immediate superiors and senior management. Field workers face personal problems such as job insecurity, financial difficulties, problems with accommodation, and family dislocation. These personal problems differ according to gender, marital status and age. Their professional problems include training workload, promotion, transfer, treatment by superiors and status at work. Apart from these job issues, field worker face problems in their external relationships such as suspicion, resistance or lack of co-operation from religious leaders and local bosses, time and resource constraints, lack of availability of suitable clients and eagerness of the clients to get financial or material benefits. It is argued that the strengths of the field workers of Southern NGOs have been largely unexplored and undervalued. This paper seeks to make recommendations for NGOs in solving these problems to make their work more effective.

Agricultural Sustainability through Empowerment of Rubber Smallholders in Thailand

B. Somboonsuke, Ganesh P. Shivakoti and H. Demaine

Abstract:

Following the economic crisis of 1997 in Thailand, rubber-smallholders along with many other farmers were forced to adjust their farming strategies and systems to maintain viability and remain sustainable into the future. One important aspect of change was empowering such smallholders to have more control over their farm, which had been until that time largely under the influence of their leaseholders and the rubber marketing system. Such empowerment involved several factors, including increased self-sufficiency, better understanding of the causal agents of their expenses and incomes, development of skills, increased participation in the decision-making processes which affected them, and increased participation in community organizations. Based on criteria of farm production and incomes, energy used, clarity of objectives, sufficient capital for necessary investment, and undertaking new initiatives to deal with problems, smallhokder empowerment has increased markedly. This paper describes the process and outcome of increased empowerment of rubber smallholders in Thailand since the economic crisis of 1997, focusing particularly on the psychological aspects of the farmers’ changing attitudes.

Contribution of Beneficiary Participation in Project Effectiveness in Watershed Management Projects: A Case Study in Shivalik Foothill Region in Northern India

Swarn Lata Arya, J.S. Samra and R.K.Aggarwal

Abstract:

Alternative, participatory or community driven institutions of integrated watershed management are being considered to realize sustainability of natural resource use in India. This unique process of gathering livelihood and environmental externalities synergises social capital and biophysical technologies being generated by the scientists and technocrats. People’s participation and empowerment in the joint management of community and private resources harmonize relative strengths of indigenous technical knowledge and degradation and equitable sharing of goods and services by all stakeholders ensure continued consolidation of the development process. An attempt has been made in the present paper to analyse and evaluate the contribution of beneficiary participation in 53 water harvesting projects in 27 villages covering 2070 families situated in the foothills of shivalik in Northern India. An input output framework was used to identify the role of participation during various stages of the project i.e. origin, planning, designing, implementation, redesigning and maintenance. The value scores and confidence scores assigned to different variables indicated that beneficiary participation increased as the project progressed chronologically from planning to implementation and maintenance stages. In other words, participation became much more necessary for project effectiveness as the activities progressed through various stages, Communication and commitment were highly correlated with project success, which calls upon good understanding between the service providers (implementing agency) and public.

Asia- Pacific Journal of Rural Development ( APJORD)

Vol. XI, December 2001, No. 2

HRD Interventions for Rural Development: Analysis of Asian Experiences

P. Durgaprasad

Abstract:

The vicious cycle of rural poverty necessitates formulation of a set of distinct but related strategies to combat the inextricably linked socio-political and economic factors that cause poverty and stunt development. Critical public policy formulation accompanied by appropriate instruments and institutions can alone usher in rural and human development on a sustainable basis. Capacity building and empowerment of the poor through imaginative Rural Development (RD) and HRD interventions in the key sectors of development such as health, literacy, education, employment, food nutrition and income generating activities hold promise for people-centred and community-based development. Of course, supplementary state support in legislations, empowerment and institution building would be a necessary corollary to the partnership mode of development and a shift towards the human development paradigms. Much of the recent developments in the West and the south-east Asia are attributable to this growing shift of p9licies, strategies and programmes in tune with the global changes in socio-political and economic reforms and their consequences. The paper outlines the problems of poverty and development in Asia even while highlighting the need for RD, HRD and Human Development, and critically analyses the related policies, strategies, programmes and results of development interventions. It summarises the past efforts and presents pointers for future development. Alternative approaches to and innovative practices in RD and HD are highlighted and the instrumentalities are elaborated with focus on poverty alleviation and RD, HRD and HD services. Greater availability of and access to basic minimum services and safety nets is emphasized.

Local Organizational Capability for Land Management: A SWOT Analysis of Organizations in the Hills of Nepal

Giridhari Sharma Paudel and Gopal B. Thapa

Abstract:

This paper analyzes the capacity of local organizations associated with land management in the hills of Nepal based on information obtained through a survey of 120 local organizations and 300 farm households. Government organizations (GOs) can help farmers to adopt suitable land management practices, but are impaired due to political interference. NGOs have made relatively better contribution to land management. However, they have not been able to provide effective services due to close-organizational structure. User groups have strong commitment and greater enthusiasm for land management. They have not been able to take advantage of these qualities due to their weak technical capabilities. Concerned policymakers should pay attention to the de-politicization of GOs democratization of NGOs, and capacity building of the user groups.

Community Based Resource Management through Social Forestry Programme of India: A Micro Level Study of Hindol Block in Orissa State

Dolagobinda Pradhan and Jayant K. Routray

Abstract:

After 1980, the social forestry programme was introduced in India to regenerate forest resource, rehabilitate wasteland and meet local needs of peoples for fuel wood demand and other minor forest produce by involving local community for social forestry project management and help sharing expected benefits. The joint management practice of social forestry by the Forest Department of the State Government and local community is seen as a positive experience although they are often shadowed with some weaknesses. This study conducted in Orissa State in India clearly demonstrates a higher degree of awareness among the communities and participation of people in the project with partial success. The study also recommends for providing a well-defined operational framework for managing social forestry activities and ensuring sharing of benefits by the people to further enhance the degree of success.

Promotion of Integrated Agriculture-Aquacultur Farming Systems in Northeast Thailand: Need for Judicious Considerations

Jharendu Pant, Harvey Demaine and Peter Edwards

Abstract:

Northeast Thai farming systems have undergone major changes over the last four decades. Agricultural development has been constrained by mismatch of agricultural interventions with rapidly changing social and economic contexts. Integrated agriculture-aquaculture systems (IAAS) have been promoted in the small-scale, resource poor farming sector in the belief that they provide both employment and restore the environment. However, promotion of IAAS is rather challenging due to the costly and lengthy transformation process and emergence of additional problems beyond the transition phase. A survey of IAAS households with varying lengths of experience in IAA was conducted in four different agro-ecological zones to identify major constraints faced by them. The survey found that biophysical constraints to IAAS farming varied with resource base, however, in all areas disease and pests were common problems in fruit and vegetable production. Households in the transitional phase (with up to four years experience) regarded biophysical and technological constraints as the major ones, while households beyond the transitional phase (with five or more years of experience) increasingly faced problems of marketing and fluctuating demand for farm products, particularly fruit and vegetables, in the local market. None of the respondents reported a problem in selling fish, indicating an inadequate supply of fish to meet the demand in local markets. Harnessing location specific, agro-based potential and linking IAA systems with small-scale agro-industries may be needed to make the increasing number of small scale IAAS viable in the long run.

Regional Variations in Health status: the Indian Case of Health Care and Economic Reforms

K. Hanumantha Rao

Abstract:

The development of health sector has become the prime concern of the state under the new economic policy regime. Any impact assessment of the economic reforms should gauge he changes in the health status in the transition phase vis-à-vis pre-reform situation. The present paper attempts to delineate the changes in health scenario across the major states with rural-urban break up. To examine the efforts of the state, the trends in public outlays/expenditure on social services and health services in per capita terms (at constant prices) were examined. A comparative static framework for analysis was adopted (3 time period analysis-1981-83, 1988-90 and 1995-97) to trace the changes taking place in respect of six key indicators of health viz, CBR, CDR, IMR, TFR, Female (effective) age at marriage (FAM) and expectancy of life. Issues like emergence of Rural-urban differentials (RUD) and deceleration in the annual growth rate(s) in regard to these indicators in the wake o new reforms were analyses have been identified. The inter-correlation analysis was attempted to identify the crucial health parameters for emphasis in the future interventions. A Composite Development Index of Health status (CDIH) was calculated and the inter-state and rural-urban disparities in CDIH values have been examined over time. The relationship between health status and welfare (poverty) was analysed using regression. These analytical findings verify the proposition that investments in health will help achieve improvements in the human well being.

Managing System within a Non-systemic Vicious Circle: Institutional Linkage Analysis to Identify the Constraints of Technology Transfer and Adoption under crop Diversification Programme in Bangladesh

Jiban Ranjan Majumder and Ganesh P. Shivakoti

Abstract:

Crop Diversification Programme is a relatively large planned public intervention in Bangladesh, which is being implemented throughout the country for the last 12 years jointly by Bangladesh Agricultural Research Institute, Directorate of Agricultural Extension. Bangladesh Agricultural Development Corporation and Department of Agricultural Marketing. The main objective of the programme is to promote the production of nutritional minor crops, such as pulses, oilseeds and tubers, through transfer and adoption of improved crop varieties and production technologies. Routine field evaluations show that the programme has hardly been able to achieve its objective, as majority of target crop varieties were not found to be adopted at the field. Level. By employing a multilevel investigation, the present study revealed that the unsatisfactory performance of the programme has been rooted primarily into institutional constraints, because the implementing agencies could not establish and maintain functional coordination among them in planning, implementation, monitoring and evaluation of technology transfer and adoption programme. On the other hand isolation of the programme from the local knowledge networks resulted in mismatching of the offered technologies with the practical field situation. Based on field findings, and alternative policy model has been suggested to improve the innovative performance of CDP in a systemic pattern.

Asia- Pacific Journal of Rural Development ( APJORD)

Vol. XII, July 2002, No. 1

Financial Viability of Drip-Irrigation System for Sugacane and Grape Cultivation in Maharashtra

A.N. Sarkar and J. S. Hanamashetti

Abstract:

Drip-irrigation system has assumed critical importance in rainfed Indian agriculture in view of efficient management and economic use of water. Maharashtra being a typical dry-farming State of India, with about 14.5% area under irrigation and accounting for nearly 50% of India’s total drip area, merited a systematic impact evaluation study, especially in terms of cost-economics of cultivation of two important commercial crops namely, sugarcane and grape, grown under drip-system in Ahmednagar and Nashik districts of Maharashtra. Experimental findings pertaining to Ahmednagar and Nashik drip districts, using sugarcane and grape as test crops have convincingly established the fact that drip-method of irrigation conserves water, electricity, minimizes conveyance losses; attributes higher yield and incremental income and has higher benefit: cost ratio as compared to conventional (i.e. flood) method of irrigation. But while intensifying the cultivation of these commercial crops under drip-system, extreme caution may be exercised to avoid demarcated “Grey” and “Dark” area from over-exploitation for future irrigation purpose to ensure environmental sustainability.

Exploring the Impacts of Structural Adjustment on the Provision of Selected Economic and Social Services in Rural Sri Lanka

Joseph Mensah and Widanage Rupananda

Abstract:

The decade from the early 1970s to the early 1980s represent a critical period in the economic history of many developing countries. It was during this time that several African, Asian, and Latin American nations witnessed, perhaps, their severest socio-economic problems as a result of the OPEC crisis. In response to this crisis, many countries, including Sri Lanka, embarked on Structural Adjustment Program (SAP), characterized by trade liberalization, privatization, currency devaluation, and widespread removal of government subsidies. This paper examines the impact of Sri Lanka’s SAP on the provision of economic and social services such as health care and education in rural communities, using survey data from farmers in the Monaragala District. The findings of the study suggest that large-scale farmers with the necessary resources to compete in an open market have benefited more from the policy reforms and the attendant privatization of socio-economic services than their small-scale counterparts. Against the backdrop of this finding, more social safety nets to cater for the truly disadvantaged of those impoverished by the nation’s reform, is called for. While it is acknowledged that progress has been made in Sri Lanka as a result of the SAP, we cautioned that SAP alone cannot lead to a sustained development. Long-term development requires, among other things principled capacity building, investment in human capital, and institutional improvements in an environment of peace and security.

The Rice Cultivation in Bangladesh: A Linear and Quadratic Programming Approach

Sayed Hossain, Ming Yu Cheng and L.V.L.N. Sarma

Abstract:

In Bangladesh, the current farm plan has been in practice for several decades in which 80 percent of the total cropped area is occupied by rice while the rest 20 percent goes to four other major crops namely jute, pulses, oilseeds and vegetables. Although rice cultivation is occupying majority of the cropping areas, the government of Bangladesh is still seeking the possibility to increase rice production aimed at achieving absolute self-sufficiency in rice production. Consequently, the issue raised is whether the move to achieve self-sufficiency in rice is economically justifiable. Hence, the main objective of this study is to build an efficient farm plan to address the above-mentioned critical issue from the risk and return perspective. Dhaka division, largely known as the central region of Bangladesh, is chosen as the study area and the whole division is considered as a big farm. To build an efficient farm plan for Dhaka division, mathematical tools such as quadratic programming and linear programming are used in this study. In this study, the current farm plan in Dhaka division is compared with efficient farm plan at current risk and expected total return level. The result of efficient plan shows that Dhaka division could in fact reduce risk considerably and enjoy higher return compared to current plan if mire area is devoted for rice production. Assam has experienced considerable changes in area, production and productivity of various crops since 1964-65. An attempt has therefore been made to analyze the growth rates of area, production and production and productivity of various crops and the cropping pattern changes in terms of substitution and expansion effects. The relative contribution of various components to the growth of crop output was worked out by seven factor additive model suggested by Minhas (1966). Results indicated that cropping pattern changes were in favour of food crops and the greater contribution was due to expansion effect.

Arsenic Accumulation in Kangkong (Ipomoea reptans) and the Effects of Phosphate Fertilizer in its Availability in Soil

M.M. Rahman, Ganesh P. Shivakoti, M.J.Uddin, S.M.A.T. Khandakar

Abstract:

A pot experiment was conducted in the premises of Regional Laboratory, SRDI, Khulna, Bangladesh in order to determine the distribution level of Arsenic (As) in Kangkong with respect to age and to assess the effects of phosphorus (P) on As availability in soils. Ther were nine treatments with the combination of three levels of As (0, 2 and 30mg As kg-1 soil) and three levels of P (0, 40 and 80 mg kg-1 soil). Arsenic was applied as As2O3 and P as triple super phosphate (TSP). The experiment was carried out in a 3x3 factorial design. Arsenic application in soils significantly increased its concentration in plants. Higher As concentration was observed after 60 days, than in 30 days. Arsenic concentration in roots was higher than in edible parts. P fertilizers enhanced the effect on As availability in soil solution and higher accumulation in plants. It was found from this study that As concentration in edible parts after 30 days and 60 days were 4.61 mg kg-1 and 9.56 mg kg-1 dry matter respectively. So, this crop grown in As contaminated soil (10.0 mg As kg-1 soil or above) is not allowable for consumption as it exceeded the maximum permissible limit (1.0 mg kg-1 dry matter) of As in plants.

Productivity, Technology, Infrastructure Growth and Investment Assessment for Poverty Reduction in Dryland Agriculture

K. N. Selvaraj, C. Ramasamy, Anil Kuruvila and A. Rohini

Abstract:

Even in drylands, productivity benefits of investments have trickle down benefits for the rural poor, inspite of infrastructural bottlenecks. The paper draws upon data from secondary sources and deals with profitability differentials of both irrigated and rainfed farming from the state of Tamilnadu, India. It is felt that a major breakthrough in dryland technologies is necessary to improve the quality of life of the people. However available technology and infrastructural growth have contributed to production growth and poverty reduction in both irrigated and rainfed areas. The experience of watershade management indicate the advantage of development, with less investment.

Technological Problems in Small and Medium Fruit Processing Industries (SMFPIs): A Case Study of East Java, Indonesia

I. B. Suryaningrat and V. M. Salokhe

Abstract:

In Indonesia, small and medium fruit processing industries (SMFPIs) are major components of agro-industrial activities and are sub-systems in agribusiness. In terms of economic development, these SMFPIs contribute substantially to employment and income generation. Based on a purposive sample survey in five districts in East Java, Indonesia, this research paper illustrates technological problems encountered in these SMEPIs. The present situation and critical problems related to processing activities, equipment and machinery, and machinery, and quality of products were analyzed. The results revealed that capital or investments and skill of operators were the main hindrances in the use of technology in these SMFPIs. Most of SMFPIs have 10-20 per cent of defective products during processing. Seventy per cent of these enterprises never did other activities such as laboratory tests for controlling and monitoring contamination level or chemical composition. Marketing is the common training activity. Other training programmes such as information of new technology and improvement of quality are still needed to support SMFPIs activities.

Asia- Pacific Journal of Rural Development ( APJORD)

Vol. XII, December 2002, No. 2

Women’s Empowerment and current use of Contraception in Bangladesh

Tapash Kumar Biswas and M. Kabir

Abstract:

The aim of this article is to examine the effect of women’s empowerment on current use of contraception and to analyse the factors how women’s empowerment affects contraceptive use. A total of 840 eligible women from four villages were interviewed from two different socio-culturally and religiously different areas-Comilla Sadar Upazila and Sylhet sadar Upazila-following two-stage cluster sampling method. In addition, expert’s opinion survey was also conducted to develop weight for empowerment indicator. The analysis of the stuffy indicates that the higher the level of women’s empowerment, the higher is the likelihood of current use of contraception. Among the different empowerment factors, reproductive rights, decision-making power and awareness have significantly higher contribution to current use of contraception. The implications of the findings were discussed in terms of access to women’s education.

Environmental Impacts of Groundwater Exploitation in the North China Plan’s Agriculture: Farmers’ Perceptions and Remedial Measures

A Case Study in Ningjin County os Shandong Province, P. R. China

Joseph Mensah and Widanage Rupananda

Abstract:

This paper addresses the critical situation of groundwater resource exploitation for agricultural related and environmental effects caused by improper management practices of water use in Ningjin County of the North China Plain (NCP). Agriculture sector consumes 90 percent of the water resources available in this area. Several negative environmental effects such as declining groundwater table levels, contamination of water sources, increased soil salinity, increased irrigation cost, compaction of soil, increased land subsidence and incidence of waterlogging condition have been experienced in the area, as perceived by local farmers. This is due o overpumping of groundwater by a large number of wells clustered in small areas The study indicates that if the current pattern of water use, existing attitudes of farmers, and improper implementation of policies, and regulations are continued, then the agricultural activities will face severe consequences and tend to be unsustainable. This warrants for new strategies to improve the present situation. Recommended strategies are to strengthen agricultural planning system and implementation of government policies, laws and regulations and to increase the public awareness of water resources, adopt water-saving agriculture and increase water use efficiency, increase conjunctive use of water, and create opportunities for participating farmers in the development efforts.

NGOs as Partners of Government in Resettlement-The Case of the Rengali Irrigation Project, India

Binaya Kumar Rout and Reidar Dale

Abstract:

In India, NGOs have recently become widely recognized partners with government agencies in resettlement of displaced people under various infrastructure projects. This is because they have tended to do such work better than the respective government bodies. The article deals with the roles and performance of NGOs in resettlement work of the Rengali Irrigation Project in Orissa. It explores the organizations’ effectiveness in resettlement, compares their mode of operation and performance, and suggests measures to help the displaced people resettle properly.

Industrial Districs and Rural Development: A Case Study of Markazi Province in Iran

Abdoreza R. Eftekhari, Ali Asgary and Mehdi Taherkhani

Abstract:

During the past decades, rural industrialization has been one of he major policies in developing countries to foster rural development. It has been argued that rural industrialization can have significant socio-economic impacts in rural areas. Iran has applied rural industrialization in form of creating rural industrial districts in different parts of the country since 1990. This study attempts to explore development impacts of these cluster using industrial clusters created in Markazi province of Iran as case study. A questionnaire has been designed and completed by employees of industrial units to compare their situations before and after being employed in industrial clusters. This paper presents some of the main findings of the study.

Local Participants’ Perception about Socio-Economic and Environmental Impacts of community forestry in the Middle Hills of Nepal

Ambika P. Gautam, Edward L. Webb and Ganesh P. Shivakoti

Abstract:

This research investigated local participants’ evaluation of a government-sponsored community forestry programme in one watershed of the Middle Hills of Nepal, with particular reference to the availability of essential forest products and local environmental condition. Data were collected through household surveys and key informant interviews. Respondents cited a general improvement of forest condition after the implementation of community forestry in 1978, concurrent with a decrease in collection distance and improvement in environmental condition. Shorter collection distance was most likely the result of a smaller constellation of accessible forests, due to community forest protection by other user groups. Community forest are the main source of fuelwood for approx. half the respondents but private forests/land are the main source of fodder for more than fifty percent of the respondents. The community forestry programme in Nepal was envisioned to increase the availability of subsistence forest procucts (fuelwood, fodder, timber) in collectively managed forests, yet evidence from this research indicates that this has only occurred for fuelwood. A logical but perhaps unintended result of widespread community forestry implementation is the reduction in total forest availability for a particular household requiring the resource input into private forest. We argue that private landholdings will inevitably become an increasingly important source fro meeting subsistence forestry needs of rural households as the number of community forests increase. This research thus paves the way for future studies assessing how private forests are emerging to face this challenge.

Performance Analysis of Irrigated Wheat Farms in The Lower Indus Basin

Intizar Hussain, Furard Marikar and Waqur Jehangir

Abstract:

This paper analyses the performance of irrigated wheat farms in the Lower Indus Basin, with a view to identify the sources of productivity differences and to examine the productivity potential in the Basin. The study is based on cross-sectional data collected from a random sample of 1220 irrigated wheat farms located in 14 canal commands. The study employs Data Envelopment Analysis (a non-parametric programming method) and production function approaches to evaluate performance and to estivate elasticities and marginal productivity of inputs at aggregate and disaggregated levels. Average farm level performance index is estimated at 74 per cent, implying that wheat producers can reduce inputs by 26 per cent by adopting the best practices of efficient producers. Shortage of irrigation water in some canal commands and poor land quality in others are found to be fundamental constraints to productivity increases in the Basin. The analysis suggests that productivity gains in the immediate short run can be achieved by the effective reallocation of water across canal commands. However, sustained productivity increases in the long run would be achieved through effective management of, and additional investments in, both land and water resources.

Asia- Pacific Journal of Rural Development ( APJORD)

Vol. XIII, July 2003, No. 1

Monitoring and Evaluation of the Bangladesh Integrated Nutrition Project

Rezaul Karim and F. James Levinson

Abstract:

The Bangladesh Integrated Nutrition Project, covering roughly 16 per cent of the country’s rural area, is generally acknowledged to be among the most successful large scale community-based nutrition projects ever undertaken in a developing country. The success of the project is due in large part to a unique partnership between the country’s Ministry of Health and a number of mostly indigenous NGOs. The project places a high premium on community mobilization and includes child growth and pregnancy weight gain monitoring, food supplementation for young children and mothers indentified as “at risk”, behavioural change communications. Adolescent forums and food security-based income generation (gardens and poultry) for low income households.

Overall, the monitoring and evaluation of BINP has been on to the project’s great strengths and, arguably the most valuable service provided by BINP’s Project Office over the life of the project. Well implemented baseline and midterm evaluations were carried out (with an endline evaluation about to commence), and the project’s monitoring system has provided comprehensive information in timely fashion to project mangers and other stakeholders.

The monitoring system deserves particular not. Rapid analysis of BINP monitoring data, particularly in the later years of the project, permitted remarkably detailed and disaggregated breakdowns of monitoring indicators by upazila (sub-district geographic units), and, within upazilas, sometimes by community. This in turn, permitted a scoring of communities and, in turn upazilas, facilitating project decision making at the central level.

Evaluations were far more useful than those normally carried out in large scale community-based nutrition projects, indicating, thus far, the project’s dramatic effect in reducing the prevalence of severe malnutrition among young children, and its efficiency in service provision (e.g. a more than 10 fold increase in the provision of ante-natal services and the delivery of iron-folate supplements to pregnant women.) At the same tine, BINP’s M & E system revealed a number of lessons for the establishement of such systems in furtue projects relating to (a) discrepancies between monitoring and evaluation data, (b) the interpretation of control group data, (c) data collection requirements in a baseline survey, and (d) problems likely to arise when multiple contractors are used.

Employment Pattern among Tribals and NoNon-Tribals in Eastern India: A Retrogressive View

Sujeet K. Jha, O.N. Kunzru, Sabyasachi Das, L.D.Bisht, S.R.K. Singh and S.K. Jha

Abstract:

The present study was conducted among tribal and non-tribals, residing in Chhotanagpur region of eastern India, with a view to ascertain the employment pattern prevailing among them. For this, 80 tribal families and 80 non-tribal families were selected as the respondents, wherein, each family consisted of husband and wife. In all, 11 independent variables namely: education, family size, family education status, urban contact, land-holding, livestock holding, mass media exposure, extension contacts, attitude toward income generation, attitude towards employment generation, and participation in developmental programmes were used for regression model. The data were collected personally, with the help of an interview-schedule, prepared especially for this study. In order to determine the degree to which the dependent variable could be predicted with the hope of selected independent variables, the regression analysis was used. The results of the study indicated that attitude towards employment generation, participation in developmental programmes, family education status, and urban contact had positive influence on the employment pattern of the tribals residing with the non-tribals in the same villages; albeit, the same 4 variables had negative impact on the employment pattern of the tribals living purely tribal-inhabited villages. That meant, the tribal community living with non-tribals. In co-existence, had positive attitude towards employment generation and employment pattern in agriculture, animal husbandry, and other enterprises.

Factors Affecting Adoption of Management Practices in Smallholder Oil Psalm Plantations of Banten Province, Indonesia

Widi Hardjono, S.L. Ranamukhaarachchi and Gajendra Singh

Abstract:

The fifth Nucleus Estate smlholder (NES) oil palm development project was introduced for smallholders in Banten province to generate incomes and to provide employment to rural communities. This paper has focused on the analysis of factors that hindered an extensive project implemented to benefit smallholders with oil palm production, and to propose appropriate strategies to revive the oil palm production. Individual smallholders or family members had no obligation to work in their oil palm fields. Besides, smallholders felt that oil palm cultivation was a second priority after food crops. Most of the smallholders were not aware of managing oil plantation due to unsatisfactory management strategy formulated and adopted with a labour. Oil palm still provides 30% of the total smallholder income. However the FFB yield was significantly correlated with smallholders’ income. Besides, it was found that 30 per cent of respondents owned more than 1.5-hectare oil palm plantation as they initially got from the NES project. Therefore improvement in smallholder oil palm plantation will give high impact in smallholders’ livelihood. Lack of attention and assistance from identified institutions, lack of funds, insufficient human capacity, poor extension service, lack of replanting programmes, poor leadership skill, and poor accountability among the farmer group members were the other contributory factors to the failure.

The Efficacy of Selected Predators Against White-Backed Planthopper (WBPH), Sogatella furcifera (Horvath) (Homoptera: Delphacidae) in Rice in Myanmar

Mu Mu Kyaw and S. L. Ranaukhaarachchi

Abstract:

This study evaluated the potential of predators for the management of White-backed planthopper (WBPH), Sogatella furcifera (Horvath), under cage and field conditions in Myanmar. Twelve selected commonly appearing predators in rice ecosystems were tested in cages for predation potential on WBPH at 10 and 20 days after infestation in the first study. The second study conducted in field plots covered with nets using eight predators at Central Agricultural Research Institute, Yezin, Pyinmana

The efficacy of predators and their influence on yield were evaluated. The highest predation rate was in Camponotus sp. Treatment and each insect consumed 23 and 2 insects by 10 and 20 days after infestation, respectively in the cage experiment. The predation of Camponotus sp., Paederus fuscipes, pardosa pseudoannulata, Hydrometra sp., Cyrtorhinus lividipennis Casnoidea indiac, Micraspis discolor and Tetragnatha sp. Was greater than that of Limnogonus fossarum, Ischnura senegalensis, Anaxipha sp. And Ropalidia fasciata on WBPH. In the field study, the numbers of WBPH survived in all predator treatments were found significantly reduced compared to control-1 (without predators and with WBPH). There were significantly higher yield losses due to WBPH in control-1compared to rice plants without both WBPH and predators. Treatments with Camponotus sp. and P. pseudoannulata had excellent suppression of WBPH and higher grain yields when compared to other predator treatments.

Prominent Livelihood Asset Pentagon within the Analytical Framework of Irrigation System Performance Assessment

Shiddi Ganesh Shrestha and Ganesh Prasad Shivakoti

Abstract:

Farming is core of rural livelihoods and irrigation is its important component. Multiple uses of and growing demand for water has made irrigation water increasingly competitive. The global concern now is to look into these competitions and develop strategies that are socially, environmentally, economically and technically conducive to water resources development in general and irrigation development in particular. It necessitates development of a framework that comprehensibly assesses the performance of an irrigation system. The research world of this paper is an effort towards this direction. The conventional approach that considers the factors borne within the command area is not sufficient. In a complex rural setting these factors cross such boundaries. This paper has identified grossly overlooked but crucial livelihood factors that influence the performance of irrigation system and has developed a framework of analysis. In this context livelihood asset pentagons and their elements were identified and statistically tested for its validity for comprehensive assessment of an irrigation system. The empirical evidence has shown that difference in farm households’ access to these assets lead to varying performance of an irrigation system.

Asia- Pacific Journal of Rural Development ( APJORD)

Vol. XIII, December 2003, No. 2

Crop Diversification: An Empirical Analysis on Kangra Farms of Himachal Pradesh, India

Mahajan Girish and Parkash Mehta

Abstract:

This article examines the magnitude of crop diversification in the farm sector of Kangra district of Himachal Pradesh, India and its empirical relationship with socio-economic factors such as farm size, land tenure, education, distance from the town/market and other important factors. To attain the objectives, primary and secondary data were analysed using appropriate statistical tools. The extents of diversification on crop and income sources were studied using Herfindhal and Entropy Index. The paper highlights the following aspects of crop diversification: the socio-economic features of sample population: the cropping pattern being adopted by the sample households: the different measures of crop diversification used in the study; the theoretical basis used for pattern of farm diversification between two different categories under the study and its implications on crop diversification; and the different factors which affect the extent of crop diversification.

Assessment of Participatory Extension Approaches for Sustainable Agriculture development in Uplands of West Sumatra, Indonesia

Astia Dendi and Ganesh P. Shivakoti

Abstract:

Development organizations, particularly in developing countries, have increasingly adopted participatory approaches in their development strategy to achieve sustainability goal. The effectiveness and scale of success of participatory approaches implementation, however, have been a focus of development debate recently. In this line, this study attempted to assess the effectiveness and outcomes of a participatory extension approach (PAE) conceptualized to facilitate changes toward sustainable upland agricultural systems, by using a systematic rapid assessment and individual household survey. Findings from this study reveal that farmers’ participation in the process of identifying and developing solutions to the problems they are facing, positively influences the adoption of promoted technology. We found that, over two years of participation in on-farm technology development process, about 50 percent of the participation farmers, have remarkably adopted sustainable agriculture principles according to needs We also identified that a shared perception of secured and fair land tenure is a key factor inducing farmers’ investment to enhance sustainability of agricultural system; however, we also identified a number of new evidences that, farmers’ investment through adopting a flexible tree- based farming system sensibly enhances their tenure security and, in turn, it may induce a larger-scale adoption of improved agricultural practices necessary to enhance resilience of ecosystem as well as livelihood sustainability of the farmers themselves. These findings of our study call for a more flesible approach and focus on broader activities beyond soil fertility and erosion control, as well as a further shift from subsidy to capacity building incentives and reinforcement of a learinig-oriented mode of monitoring and evaluation. Furthermore, there are also some other rooms for improvements and some outstanding issues, which call for innovative solutions.

Profit Gains by Collectors and Traders from Non-timber Forest Products Trading in the Malekukhola Watershed in Nepal

Bishnu Hari Pandit and Gopal B. Thapa

Abstract:

This article examines the Non-timber Forest Products (NTFP) marketing system in a small watershed of Nepal divided into two zones bared on elevations. Profit and marketing margin analyses were done for ten dominant NTFPs traded to find out particularly collectors’ relative share of the income earned through the trade. Findings revealed villagers in the upper zone where abundance of NTFPs than that of corner zones. However, the major proportion of the total sales value of most NTFP traded was taken away by intermediary traders such as village or road-head traders due to several factors constraining direct marketing system between the collectors and wholesale traders.

Budgeting Process Improvement in Rural Infrastructure Development of Thai Sub-District Local Government

N. Leungbootnal and C. Charoenngam

Abstract:

The budgeting process is considered as the most critical function influencing the success of infrastructure development, especially for the rural local government due to their less exposure to the recent relatively complex budgetary process. In Thailand, Tambol Administrative Organization (TAO), the smallest local government unit, was newly form as a rural development initiative. From reviews of the existing TAO budgeting process, five problems were identified: operational, functional, knowledge competency, public participation, and those related to government agencies. These problems were then linked into four improvement concepts: quality management, knowledge competency, good governance and public participation. The infrastructure budgeting process was drawn up on the basis of these four improvement concepts. The proposed process was reviewed and updated with input from the focus group sessions of TAO’s major stakeholders to ensure its applicability in practice. The final budgeting process emphasizes, at each step, on well-defined duties and responsibilities of all major stakeholders and good governance through public participation.

Management Information system for Microfinance Institutions

Chennapragada Ram Seshagiri Rao

Abstract:

Micro credit is an emerging tool for poverty alleviation, women empowerment and in promoting micro business activities. NGO interventions across the countries in Asia, Africa and Latin America have shown very positive results. The Management Information System (MIS) is a useful tool for the Microfinance Institutions (MFI) to keep track of their activities, to study the impact, and to take timely corrective action in both accounting and portfolio management. MIS has to be simple, flexible and adoptive to suit the needs and future requirements of and MFI. As NGO’s are expanding there operations and their outreach becoming bigger, the costs involved may be less if the expenditure is divided by the number of clients they serve. It is an effective tool to promote operational and managerial efficiency in the micro credit market, operated by micro finance institutions.

Asia- Pacific Journal of Rural Development ( APJORD)

Vol. XIV, July 2004, No. 1

Empowerment of Women in Bangladesh: Does it Help Make Reproductive Decision?

AKM Ahsan Ullah

Abstract:

Role of NGOs, empowerment of the women and reproductive decision have been the most pronounced issues in development discourse in Bangladesh. The paper attempts to explore the role of NGOs in improving the empowerment status of the women and to see whether ‘empowerment’ helps the women make reproductive decision. A sound methodology was adopted to determine the sample size. A total of 186 randomly selected respondents were interviewed using both close and open-ended questionnaire. Both qualitative and quantitative (descriptive and analytical) techniques were used to analyze date. Data show that in sic indicators of empowerment almost all the respondents have significant achievement. For the cases of “ability” to make small and larger purchase”; “participation in family and reproductive decision making” ; “enjoy freedom in the family”; “free from dominance by other family members”; “increased mobility’ women achieved a significant improvement between pre and post NGO period (P<0.000). For the case of “Participation in political activity” they have also been able to achieve significant change (P<0.001). A significantly higher percentage of respondents have control over reproductive decision in post NGO period and a negligible percentage of respondents reported to have taken reproductive decision due to husband’s insistence. Cases of pressure from other members of the family on reproductive decision in post NGO period have been significantly lower (P<0.000). The NGOs have played important role in empowering the women and empowerment helps make reproductive decision.

Impacts of Rice-Prawn Gher Farming on Cropping Patterns, Land Tenant System, and Household Income in Bangladesh-A Case Study of Khulna District

Basanta Kumar Barmon, Takumi Kondo, and Fumio Osanami

Abstract:

This paper examines the impact of rice prawn gher farming on cropping patterns, land tenant system, agricultural income as well as household income. Rice prawn gher farming is a newer agricultural technology in the southwestern Bangladesh. The comparative analysis research was conducted in two contrasting villages-Bilpabla village for rice prawn gher farming, and Kuloti village for boro and aman paddy farming under Dumuria thana in Khulna District. The Primary data were collected through a cross sectional farm survey. Before the gher farming had started, the farmers produced only local aus and local aman paddy in swampland, and cultivated pulses and oil seeds in comparatively high land in altitude once a year. The gher farming system has changed the changed the cropping patterns dramatically with diverse products like prawn, dramatically with diverse products like prawn, carp fish, boro paddy, and vegetables in the field where only single crop of paddy was cultivated. Gher farmin system has also changed the land tenure system from sharecropper to fixed land tenant. Gher farming system is very profitable enterprise compared to MV borw, and local aman paddy. Total gross revenue and agricultural income of gher farmer were about five times and seventeen times higher than MV boro and local aman paddy farmer, respectively. In addition, the household income of gher farmers was also more than double compared to boreo and aman paddy farmers. The study has found a very positive impact of gher farming on agricultural income as well as household income in the study area.

Constraints of Tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) Production in Bangladesh: Looking from Socio-economic Perspective

Ganesh P. Shivakoti and Jiban R. Majumder

Abstract:

Tilapia are currently having important impacts on poor people in developing countries, both as cultured species in household-management systems and through access to fish produced in informal and formal fisheries. The present study was conducted to map out the underlying reasons that constrain the adoption of this species in Bangladesh. Results of descriptive statistics, Chi-square test and, correlation and regression analysis indicated that skill training, contact with private fish hatchery, Department of Fisheries (DoF) and Bangladesh fisheries Research Institute (BFRI), and organizational membership significantly facilitated farmers to adopt this species. On the other hand, non-availability and high price of quality seed, difficult technology, lack of appropriate technical information and technical support, and high price of feed appeared as significant factors that constrained farmers to adopt it. Based on findings of the study, some specific recommendations as well as a broad policy model are suggested, aiming at promoting the dissemination and adoption of tilapia in a wider scale in the country.

Multiplication of Crossandra (Crossandra unduleafolia var: “Danica”) by In-vitro Shoot Tip Culture

A .H. S. Wijesekara, D. C. Bandara and S. L. Ranamukhaarachchi

Abstract:

Crossandra (Crossandra unduleafolia var. “Danica”) is a newly introduced flowering potted plant. There is a rapid increase in the demand for planting material, which could not be met with the production of rooted cuttings. This study was conducted to identify suitable culture media for shoot initiation, multiplication and elongation so as to meet the needs of mass propagation demand. This consisted of three sub studies, viz. identification of suitable culture media for shoot tip establishment, shoot multiplication and shoot elongation. Shoot tip establishment was attempted using IAA at different combinations of BAP and kinetin. BAP at 3.0 ppm alone was best for shoot tip establishment, which gave 100% regeneration and average number of 6.5 shoots per explant. In the multiplication stage, four concentration of BAP (viz, 2,3,4 and 5 ppm) and three concentrations of IAA (viz. 0,1, and 3 ppm) were tested in a factorial experiment. The highest mean shoot number per explant and the highest shoot lengyh were produced by 2 ppm BAP and 1 ppm IAA. A more precise combination of BAP and IAA was further tested by elaboration BAP concentration around 2 ppm, which showed BAP at 1.5 ppmas the optimum concentration for shoot multiplication and elongation. Addition of GA3 at 1.0 ppm gave the highest shoot elongation. This study demonstrates that C. unduleafolia shoot tips are amenable for in-vitro production of high quality multiple shoots, and hence the use of clonal multiplication.

Explaining Intervention Outcome in Farmer Managed Irrigation System

Pradyumna Amatya, Wai F. Lam, Nicole Mccoy and Prashant Amatya

Abstract:

Intervention can indeed “shake” the Farmer Managed Irrigation System (FMIS) in many ways. Although the realization of this fact is creeping in, still many undermine the idea that focus should pertain to understanding the dynamics of intervention process and designing rules and implementing them effectively. With the aim of establishing a cause and effect relationship between intervention and its outcome, we used a change in cost sharing rules may indeed play a crucial role in shaping the outcome of the intervention and thus a necessary condition to explain successful outcome.

Asia- Pacific Journal of Rural Development ( APJORD)

Vol. XIV, December 2004, No. 2

Fruit Marketing systems in Asia: Patterns, Problems and Policies

Deepak M. Pokhrel and Gopal B. Thapa

Abstract:

This paper analyses fruit marketing systems in selected South, Southeast and East Asian countries in view of the important role of marketing in promotion of fruit farming. The analysis reveals a distinct variation in fruit marketing systems between theses three regions. Fruit marketing systems in East Asian countries are functioning very efficiently due to provision of good infrastructure, and necessary support services and facilities in a package from. Particularly in Japan and Republic of Korea, the group marketing system being operated by farmers’ themselves has played an equally important role in achieving this efficiency. Still, East Asian countries are confronting with some problems. Southeast Asian countries have made provision of infrastructure, and support services and facilities. However, for various reasons, the small-scale producers have not been able to take advantage of such provisions. Taking advantage of the weak bargaining power of fruit farmers, middlemen are dominating the marketing system. As a result, farmers have not been able to receive satisfactory benefit from fruit production. The marketing system is most inefficient in South Asian countries due to rudimentary infrastructure, and shortage of necessary support services and facilities. It is fragmented and, as in the case of Southeast Asia, dominated by intermediaries. Broad policy conclusions are drawn based on the findings of the analysis. Promoting group-marketing system managed by farmers themselves, and improving access to infrastructure, technology and information are major policy interventions required to improve the efficiency of fruit marketing system.

Women’s Empowerment under the Wavli System: A Study on Tribal Women in south Gujarat in India

P C Sikligar

Abstract:

India, among the South Asian countries, is having largest number of tribal populations numbering numbering over 80 millions. The entire scheduled tribal populations concentrate on different seven zones such as Northeastern, Central, Western, South, and Islands. Gond, Santhal, Bhil, and Oraon are the largest tribal groups of India. The tribal populations of India inhabit in the forest and remote areas and has been depending on forest and forest based resources from generation together. Thus Tribals follow primitive method of agriculture, which hardly give them sufficient quantity of food-grains. To meet their livelihood they depend on labour outside their areas. Women play an important role in tribal economy. Women in tribal society considered an equal economic partner who share income for managing livelihood and contribute income for betterment of the family. Wavli is an income-generating activity for tribal women, which is predominantly found in South Gujarat. The most-striking characteristic of Wavli is that income derived from it is retained by the women. The men have no claim on it. The term ‘Wavli’ is popularly known as the process of income, which is generated by the tribal women. In present scenario tribal women generate income from vegetable cultivation and dairy, vermicompost, forest nursery, mango-grafting, cashew nut processing, pickle making, craft, mushroom, cattle breeding, kitchen garden, tamarind, sewing, silk processing, etc. All these activities other than vegetable cultivation and dairy, vermicompost, forest nursery, mango-grafting, cashew nut processing, pickle making, craft, mushroom, cattle breeding, kitchen garden, tamarind, sewing, silk processing, etc. All these activities other than vegetable cultivation are introduced by Bhartiya Agro Industrial foundation (BAIF) in tribal pockets of South Gujarat. In redent years, a change has occurred in the concept of Wavli i.e. now the tribal women contribute their incomes for the betterment of the family along with meeting their own requirements.

Linking Entrepreneurial Development and Natural Resources Management: An Indian Experience

Chukka Kondaiah

Abstract:

Since the beginning of creation there has existed a symbiotic harmony between Nature and the biological life-systems of the Planet Earth. This mutually beneficial harmonious relationship has come under serious threat with the advent of Industrial revolution and the comfort of technological inventions and innovations it has made available. The consequence has been one of deleterious effects to the bio-diversity and life-systems of the planet intends to take stock of the wanton mischief we, human communities, have been playing with natural resources, in relation to the Indian situation, while reviewing some major corrective measures that the Government has initiated. The paper has five sections: the first is introductory in nature. The second provides insights onto the provisions made by the government to protect natural resources through eco-conservation policy measures. In the third section the various entrepreneurial opportunities that the resource conservation policies have thrown open in the service sector in particular, and how such enterprises would fetch dividends by way of enhanced productivity and foreign exchange returns are discussed. The challenges posed by the enviro-linked entrepreneurship, especially calling for turnabout changes in the attitude and behaviour towards Nature and her resources in the fourth section, while the fifth briefly outlines the steps that would mark the next decade as a Green Decade for India.

Promotion of Farm Forestry in Laos Enhances Creation of Individual Land Property

Dietrich Darr and Holm Uibrig

Abstract:

The paper presents results of an explorative study of peasant tree planting in three villages of central Laos that differ with regard to major bio-physical and socio-economic characteristics. The field research included the analysis of remote sensing data and the assessment of land capability based on inclination and soil type. Empirical social research tools were used to collect primary data of the peasant households. The ananlysis reveal that woodlots are generally established on abandoned slash-and-burn areas. A shortage of high-quality arable land restricts afforestation to less favourable sites, while an extensive land reserve supports tree planting on productive land as well. Large individual land holdings claimed on a customary or legal basis favour commercial tree growing. Similarly, the generation of substantial off-farm income allows for an increased afforestation. Tree growing could be proved to establish and safeguard individual land property.

Initiation of Seawater Irrigation Co-Management for Marine Shrimp farming in Thailand

Pornpimon chuaduangpui and Ganesh P. Shivakoti

Abstract:

Most of the coastal resource management projects at local level have been initiated by the central administration in several countries including Thailand. The requirement and acceptance of local community is disregarded which results in low participation in porojects implemented. Recently, Thai government has given increasing emphasis on promoting people’s involvement in managing community resources by changing mode from top down approach to co-management approach including seawater irrigation project (SWIP) for marine shrimp culture. There are two main challenging issues related to co-management of SWIP, namely, government implementation modalities and people’s participation and cooperation. Based on our evaluation, we propose alternative co-management model for Ban Nakot SWIP for participatory mode of operation.

Community Participation in Land Reclamation Project: A Case Study

C. S. Singhal

Abstract:

Community Participation is the prerequisite for the success of such projects where development o agriculture land is the prime concern. In Uttar Pradesh the sodic land reclamation project aims to improve agriculture production through large scale reclamation of sodic lands, strengthen local institutions with NGO support and contribute towards poverty alleviation of families managing sodic lands. This paper is based on an empirical study conducted in four villages of Rae Bareilly district of Uttar Pradesh, India. It analyses the perception, attitude and group dynamics of farmers and officials affecting the level of community participation in the project. The farmers organization and NGOs involvement were found effective in enlisting the participation of people in different stages of the project. The impact would have been more sustaining if these institutions would have been converged with the existing institutions.

Sustainable Development Needs and Options for Tripura (India)

Shashi Shekhar

Abstract:

The paper portrays the current state of rural-urban development and identifies critical issues in provision of infrastructure facilities/services in the State of Tripura-a northeastern State of India. Constituting a bordering state with Bangladesh (sharing more than 84 per cent of international boundary), this small State experienced heavy influs of migrants from Bangladesh soon after the partisan (India and Pakistan). Till then, an environmentally unsustainable practice of shifting cultivation continues in Tripura even today in spite of numerous attempts at rehabilitation through different five year plans and tribal sub plans. Rural development schemes more or less paid off very little. The first section of the paper deals with overall background, aim and objective, while the next summarizes overall profiles of the tiny State. Another section is devoted to highlight the environmental concerns of the State with a view to keep environment as common denominator while proposing future development scenario. The following section highlights the inter-regional disparities in the provision of services when compared with overall Indian context. One of the prominent features, which emerge after in-depth analysis, is the growing disparities among regions with regard to infrastructural services and overall socio-economic condition. In addition, the paper also identifies the gaps and constraints responsible for the current state of socio-economic affairs. The last section draws sectoral recommendation as to how sustainable harnessing of resources can contribute towards creating similar living conditions of opportunities across the regions so as to achieve the goal of sustainable and balanced development of the State.

Asia- Pacific Journal of Rural Development ( APJORD)

Vol. XV, July 2005, No. 1

‘State-in-Society’ Approach and Implications for Rural development Policy

Sony Pellisssery

Abstract:

Theory of state as understood in the concepts of ‘developmental state’ and ‘welfare state’ emphasized the autonomy of he state from society. The approach of ‘state-in-society’ recognizes blurred boundaries of the state and society. In this sense, merely comparing the outcome measures with the policy prescriptions, we cannot assess the ‘policy effect’. Power relations among these actors, who are connected in multiplex ways at the local community, determine the ‘policy effect’. Policy challenge is to make these actors interact in different ways the change is desired. Case study of this paper-social protection policy in India, a neglected aspect of human resource development in rural areas-carrying out a bottom-up analysis substantiates the theoretical arguments for state-in-society approach and identifies how the village elites act as intermediaries between the poorest beneficiaries and lower level bureaucrats in the process of distribution social protection benefits.

Balanced scorecard-Based Performance Measurement for Rural Infrastructure Development of Thai Sub-District Local Government

S. Posayanant and C. Charoenngam

Abstract:

The ninth Thai National Development Plan specifically ties up the progress of rural areas with rural infrastructure development. The Tambon Administration Organization (TAOs) or the sub-district local governments (the smallest local government units in the country) are responsible for rural infrastructure. While working with budgetary constraints, TAOs must be able to monitor and feedback on the effectiveness of infrastructure development based on improvements in the economy, society and the environment. Given this task, TAOs should focus on an objective performance measurement. The Balanced Scorecard is adopted as a framework for designing a set of measurements in this study. The paper presents the results of a survey on the attitudes and practices of TAOs regarding performance measurement. Survey reveals that while most respondents have developed informal means to evaluate the effectiveness of infrastructure initiatives, they have realized the importance of performance measurement and have affirmed to formally adopt performance measurement if such systems were made available to them.

Public Hearing on Rural Infrastructure Development Projects in Thailand: The case of the Ta Chin River Barrages

Ektewan Manowong and Stephen O. Ogunlana

Abstract:

In recent years, many rural infrastructure development projects in Thailand have faced unanticipated difficulties and risks during the planning and implementation stages, especially social-environmental conflicts. Public participation has increasingly become a key element to promote socially and environmentally sound development. Public hearing is officially used as a method for public participation in Thailand. The ta Chin River barrages project faced strong opposition from the public. Consequently, public hearing was held with the aim of settling the environmental and social disputes. This study examines and assesses the performance of the hearing via the hearing participants’ attitude, evaluation, and satisfaction. The study found that the hearing in this project was only moderately effective. Suggestions are made in order to enhance effectiveness and improve the performance of public hearing in the Thai context.

Natural Resources Management for Sustainable Rural Development in Tribal Areas: A Suggested Strategy for district Kinnaur in Himachal Pradesh, India-A Case Study

Akbar S. Rawat

Abstract:

The status and magnitude of natural resources of an economy contribute significantly towards the process of sustainable development. Hence, their management and conservation practices are more important to perpetuate resources’ potential for the economic progress. Common property resources (CPRs) in village level are in poor condition. The situation regarding the maintenance of common property resources is disturbing and could become more desperate of positive policies are not adopted. Deliberate government action is required to control the over exploitation of common property resources. All government policies and actions should be reoriented with the common property perspective. The dependence of the poor on common property resources, and the vicious circle of poverty and degradation of such resources, are important aspects of the dynamics of rural poverty.

Soil fertility and Land Productivity under Different Cropping Systems in Highlands and Medium Highlands of Chandina Sub-district, Bangladesh

S. L. Ranamukhaarachchi, Md. Mizanur Rahman, Shamsun Nahar Begum

Abstract:

Soil fertility decline often threatens food production inducing poverty in developing countries. The soil fertility and land productivity in common cropping systems in highlands and medium highlands in the Chandina sub-district, Comilla, Bangladesh were assessed to identify suitable cropping systems for sustaining soil health and crop production. Two-year soil fertility data from selected farmer’ fields were examined. Soil pH was moderately acidic, organic matter was low to medium, nitrogen was very low to low, while phosphorus was optimum to very high, potassium was low to optimum and zinc was optimum to very high depending upon the cropping systems. Among the four most common cropping system in highlands, overall soil nutrient status showed that potato-bitter gourd-long bean cropping system had high soil fertility, whereas in medium highlands potato-rice-rice cropping system was the best among its three common cropping systems. The land productivity index was developed, which confirmed that potato-rice-rice, potato-rice-rice and cauliflower –rice-rice systems in medium highlands were the best in the long-term productivity.

Female Headed Households Resources and Constraints: A Study in Orissa, India

Trilochan Rripathy and Padmaja Mishra

Abstract:

This paper attempts to probe into the extent and causes of disadvantages of female headed households compared to male headed households in relation to resource access in rural Orissa, a state in eastern India. It is observed in course of the study that the representation of female headed households to the basket of poverty is more compared to the male headed households. Further, limited access to remunerative occupation and access to resources and access to basis services have highly affected the socio-economic status of female-headed households as compared to male-headed ones. Finally it is resulted from the regression analysis that the gender of the household head is an important factor for household welfare and the female headship is disadvantageous. Thus in policy stance, at the household level, targeting the female-headed households in the poverty alleviation prorammes would undoubtedly be a fruitful attempt in alleviation poverty from India in particular and developing countries in general. Moreover, to address the issues of FHHs relating to access to and control over, resources, assets and services, the state should take the initiative in designing and implementing the special developmental programmes in this direction so as to improve their status in the society.

Delineating the Discipline of Natural Resource Management: Domain and Approaches

Manoj T Thomas

Abstract:

This paper attempts to provide an overview of the practice of Natural Resource Management in India. The paper argues that management can be a frame to interlink with the different and unconnected disciplines and tools that constitute the domain of Natural resource Management (NRM) as practiced in India today. For this to happen, not only is it essential that there be a ‘mainstreaming’ of Natural Resource Management within the management discipline, but also that the intricacies of differences between NRM and traditional management be appreciated.

Asia- Pacific Journal of Rural Development ( APJORD)

Vol. XV, December 2005, No. 2

Institutional Framework for Promoting Rural Development in Bangladesh: An Analytical Review

Momtaz Uddin Ahmed, Eva Benita A. Tuzon and Shafiqur Rahman

Abstract:

The paper provides an overview of the current institutional framework geared to promote rural development (RD) in Bangladesh. The primary focus is to analyse the efficacy of the major role players among the RD institutions in promoting socio-economic development and transformation of the rural economy of Bangladesh. The RD implementation process in Bangladesh is handled by a multiplicity of institutional actors consisting of the specialized public sector agencies, large number of NGOs, civil society organizations and private voluntary organizations. A coordinated and synchronized implementation process is thus warranted to ensure sustained growth of the rural economy and faster alleviation of poverty. However due to lack of adequate macro-level cooperation among the line ministries and their designated RD agencies, the overall RD programmes and activities remain uncoordinated and segmented. The same is also true of the micro-level interventions where the various stakeholders pursue parallel efforts resulting in fragmentation and at times duplication of efforts and also unhealthy competition. But the need is for an integrated, holistic and sustained implementation mechanism where the different stakeholders should build strategic partnerships based on close cooperation and coordination both at policy planning, programme design and implementation levels. In this context, as an intergovernmental organization with long experience in RD and poverty alleviation (PA) process, CIRDAP can play a vitally important role in strengthening the coordination mechanism at both national and regional levels by institutionalizing an effective monitoring and evaluation (M&E) mechanism in its member countries. CIRDAP can also be instrumental in contextualizing the RD and PA planning and implementation processes in the light of the changes, opportunities and challenges brought by globalization and introduction of the market economy framework through effective utilisation of its networking facilities.

Household Water Security through Demand Responsive Approaches in Sri Lanka

Fajindra de S Ariyabandu and M.M.M. Aheeyar

Abstract:

The introduction of Demand Responsive Approaches (DRA) to water supply and sanitation (WSS) development in early 1990’s marked a major shift in roles and responsibilities of water sector stakeholders in Sri Lanka. This paper highlights a number of conceptual and practical challenges associated with implementing DRA and assesses the net impact of these ongoing changes for poor water users. Community Water Supply and Sanitation Project (CWSSP) was the first attempt using DRA as a methodological approach. Later it was improved upon by Asian Development Bank third Water Supply and Sanitation Project. This paper is an outcome of a research study conducted in two villages to assess water security through Demand Responsive Approaches.

DRA, clearly benefits the majority of rural water users. It strengthens the village organizational capacity and improves sustainability of project interventions by creating a greater sense of ownership among user communities. Research indicates that DRA has improved accessibility, adequacy and quality of household water with both direct and indirect livelihood benefits. These range from increased opportunities for wage labour and small scale income generating activities benefiting household income to reduce drudgery for water carriers and improved privacy and social security especially for women and young girls.

However, although the majority have benefited, there have been significant livelihood trade-offs associated with household water connections. The impact of trade-offs varies among different wealth groups within the community. While the impact is minimal for the rich, poor households often have to substitute consumption, family possession and even permanent assets. Analysis shows that both the relative costs of gaining a connection and relative benefits derived from improved access are greatest for the poor. Research also identified that, while DRA was effective in assessing demand of the majority it failed to realize full coverage of community

Site-specific Fertiliser Management by GIS for Higher Yield Goals: A Precision agriculture Approach for Sustainability in Irrigated Rice Production of Bangladesh

Abu Ahmed mokammel Haque, H.P.W. Jayasuriya and V. M. Salokhe

Abstract:

A soil nutrient assessment study leading to better nutrient management practices was conducted following Precision Agriculture concepts using 100 plots, from five land blocks, four land types for winter-irrigated rice/Fallow/after-monsoon rice rotation for managing inorganic fertilizers under intensive rice production in Bangladesh. Soil was slightly acidic and nutrient status was poor in all measured parameters pH, OM, N, P,K,S and Zn. Combined nutrient assessment maps with management zones, zonal fertilizer recommendation maps, and area-wide combined fertilizer application maps were created for site-specific nutrient management assisting individual farmer to recognize the correct application rates for higher yield goals, increasing the total production nearly 40 per cent from present level.

Institutional Mechanism for Rural Development: The role of NGOs with Special Reference to the Bangladesh Rural Advancement Committee (BRAC)

Abdul-Muyeed Chowdhury and Mehnaz Rabbani

Abstract:

Along with the government, NGOs have emerged as one of the most effective institutions in poverty alleviation interventions in Bangladesh. Starting with their relief and rehabilitation role after independence in 1971., NGOs have vastly expanded their programmes and proved to become effective change agents in the society. These organizations now form an integral part of the intuitional structure for addressing poverty alleviation as well as rural development, gender equality, environment protection, disaster management, human rights and other social issues. The NGOs with their concern in bringing about a positive change in the lives of the poor, largely follow a ‘process by which the members of a society develop themselves and their institutions in ways that enhance their ability to moblise and arrange resources to produce sustainable and justly distributed improvements in their quality of life consistent with their own aspirations. The Bangladesh Rural Advancement Committee (BRAC), established in 1972, started it Rural Development Progamme (RDP) IN 1986. The RDP aims to assist the landless people to organize themselves into village organizations (VOs) for their socio-economic development and usually operates for four years in a newly intervened area in order to create the framework required for the institution building of VOs and empowering the poor within the organizations. The area is taken over by the Rural Credit Programme (RCP) of BRAC which operates since 1990 mostly covering institution building, sector Programme, credit operation and support services. Institution building aims at empowering the poor and promoting social awareness education among the members of the VOs. BRAC works closely and collaborates actively with local governments and local communities and assists in facilitating access of public services as well as in complimenting public services wherever necessary, for the rural poor. By collaborating with the local communities and the government for over thirty years, BRAC has made significant contributions towards rural institutional building and creating pro-poor rural institutions for effective implementation of rural development and poverty alleviation policies.

Quality of Life (Qol) Concept for the Evaluation of societal Development of rural Community in West Bangla, India

A. K. Pal and U. C. Kumar

Abstract:

The quality of Life (QoL) index indicates the overall characteristics of the socio-economic environment in one area. It can be used as a powerful tool for community development planning to monitor key indicators that encompass the social, health, environmental and economic dimensions of the community. The authors developed a concept of the assessment of QoL of rural areas. The studies conducted in twelve villages of Joynagar Block-1 under Sundarban Block in 24 Parganas (South) district of West Bengal in respect of the QoL of the villages and Settlements revealed that: (i) in the overall picture the quality-of-life of the study area was poor; (ii) only three villages, namely Joyanagar Mazilpur, Sarberia and Beliachandi had good overall QoL rating while the remaining nine villages had poor rating; (iii) the overall situation of the two Muslim dominated villages, namely, Padmerhat and Jnjalia was worse and about 70 per cent of the families of both the villages were ‘poor’; (iv) Joynagar Mazilpur municipality was the sole village which had only 5.9 per cent families in the ‘very good’ category; (v) in terms of ‘good’ category, Dhosa village had maximum percentage of families (12.9%) whereas Baharu village had minimum percentage families (3.7%) in this category; and (vi) similarly, Beliachandi and Ganganarayanpur villages had maximum (76.4%) and minimum (24.0%) percentage of families in ‘fair’ category. The study further revealed that there is a need for an in-depth study of socio-economic fabrics of the area and development of QoL based action plan for overall community development.

An Analysis of Marketable Surplus of Potato in Bangladesh

A S M Anwarul Huq, Shamsul alam and Shaheen Akter

Abstract:

Present study examines the marketable surplus of potato. Cobb-Douglas type functional form has been tried in this study. Results of the study indicate that, marketable surplus of potato is around 82 per cent and 22 per cent is sold at the time of harvest. Regression coefficient of total production of potato confirms that total production is the best predictor in determining the level of marketable surplus. The elasticity of sale with respect to total production is more than unity. Therefore, increasing potato production in Bangladesh increases the marketed surplus. This can be achieved with the potato yield. Therefore, emphasis should be given on increasing yield through use of improved technology (irrigation, fertilizer) and hybrid seed with short maturation period.

Asia- Pacific Journal of Rural Development ( APJORD)

Vol. XVI, July 2006, No. 1

From the peasant Charter to the ICARRD: An Overview of the Current Trends and Emerging Issues in rural development in the Asia-Pacific Region

Durga P. Paudyal

Abstract:

Over the past three decades, countries of Asia-Pacific region have followed a participatory endogenous development approach. However, recently, particularly after 1990s, a renewed emphasis on poverty reduction was emphasized through fostering growth oriented programmes, enforcing higher investments in basic services and social sectors leading to accelerated human capital formation and improved living standard of the poor. As a result, the region made impressive progress in poverty reduction.

The countries of the region has emphasized particularly on promoting targeted income and employment generating programmes designed to support the vulnerable poor, particularly those left out of the mainstream in the market-based development process. In mist countries, labour intensive growth and improved social services were considered to offer a powerful and viable route to poverty reduction. Consequently the Asian countries have experienced changing focus on poverty as the development paradigms underwent changes, marked by new insights into poverty and generating innovative programmes especially in rural development. The forces shaping these changes are likely to intensify further now as the countries in the Asia-Pacific region continue their efforts to bring about desirable adjustments, restructuring and reforms in their economies to benefit from the dynamic global environment.

The continuing high incidence of rural poverty in the countries reflects the need to further intensify the efforts at poverty reduction in the years to come. The prevention of environmental degradation and achievement of other social objectives are also closely linked to success in reducing poverty. This calls for further emphasis on increasing agricultural growth, encouraging non-farm activities and accelerating the diversification and growth of the economy particularly in the rural areas. It is also important that the requirement of investments in human capital increases significantly in order to improve the skills of the labour force and enable them to work with the new generation of technologies. This requires substantial efforts at reforms in the structure of existing institutions and buildings of new one with adjustments in strategies and policies to reallocate public expenditures to priority sectors and ensure increased involvement of the NGOs and the private sector in rural development.

The paper has been organized in three parts. Part 1 gives the overview of the progress of economies of Asia-Pacific region after WCARRD in 1979. It also highlights some of the ongoing rural development programmes, ranging from social mobilization, capacity building, employment generation, decentralization and rural industrial development. Part II identifies some of the policy gaps which need to be addressed to make rural development inclusive, participatory and sustainable. Finally, Part III recommends some important issurs for inclusion in the ICARRD follow-up action and elaborates on the role of CIRDAP in the process.

Rural Infrastructure: A Critical Issue for Farm Productivity in Asia

B. Sudhakar Rao

Abstract:

The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) and FAO’s World food Summit goal envisage reduction of poverty by half by 2015. This calls for access to institutions, infrastructure and productive social services. Building rural institutions including their self-help capabilities is at the core of the poverty problem. Agriculture is dominated by small-sized farms, and they face a hostile environment and systems that are to be put in place to enhance productivity. Some of the successful interventions are mentioned in the paper. Agri-clinics, agri-business centres, e-choupal, technology incubators, windmill energy, etc. are some of the successful examples that need to be multiplied. While general infrastructural development is the responsibility of the state, on-state actors like business houses, NGOs, MNCs, etc. have to promote necessary structures (in marketing, extension, technology, productivity, etc.) to build on existing infrastructural assets to reach out to the farmers on a grand scale.

Rural Development and Poverty Alleviation through Promotion of Rural Non-farm Activities in the Asia-Pacific Region: Review of Evidence, Patterns and Issues

Momtaz Uddin Ahmed

Abstract:

Based on an extension review of the current literature, this paper presents an analytical overview of the state of art of the rural non-farm sector (termed interchangeably as RNAs and/or RNFE) in the countries of the Asia-Pacific region. The RNAs constitute an important segment of the rural economy, providing between 30 to 60 per cent of jobs and rural household incomes in rural Asia. They are greatly diverse, Dispersed over wide areas covering both villages and rural towns, and characterized by dualistic features manifesting both dynamic and residual activity categories. While RNAs are growing passing through varying growth trajectory (i.e. growth-decline-and-recovery), the major drivers of such growth are agricultural development, urbanization, rural-urban linkages and growth of the rural economy. Available evidence on the impacts of RNA growth on rural poverty and inequality is mixed, but the current literature takes a positive view on the economic contributions of these activities as vehicles of accelerated rural development, poverty alleviation, reeducation of rural-urban income gaps and migration and overall national economic growth. However, data limitations and information gaps affecting the current RNFE research and the evidence provided by them on their full potential worth suggest urgency for carrying further insightful research into various dimensions of the sector’s growth and dynamism.

Despite being an important component of the rural economy in most Asian countries with notable prospects for future growth, the RNAs suffer from many operational constraints which need to be removed to unleash their full growth and expansion possibilities. While conscious and deliberate policy interventions are needed to promote development of the RNFE, the policy interventions have to be designed and fine tuned to meet the specific needs of the greatly heterogeneous sub-sets located in different location across countries and across regions with the countries. Pro-active agricultural development, improved physical and social infrastructures, sound legal and regulatory environment, and an effective well-coordinated institutional network for efficient delivery of support services constitute the important elements of the proposed pro-active policy interventions package.

Asia- Pacific Journal of Rural Development ( APJORD)

Vol. XVI, December 2006, No. 2

Rural Poverty Assessment With Gender Dimension in Myanmar

Dolly Kyaw and Jayant K. Routray

Abstract:

This study assesses the rural poverty with various dimensions such as income/consumption, health, education, and empowerment in the dry Qone of Myanmar. A household survey, covering 220 male and female-headed handholds has been conducted in six sample villages. The income/consumption approach to poverty reveals that the femal-headed households are poorer than male-headed households in terms of food deficiency and overall poverty with adjustment household size equivalent to calorie consumption of one adult. The multivariate analysis indicates that gender of head, family size, land holding size productive labour force (both paid and unpaid), number of crops grown, frequency of visiting the doctor, frequency of trainings attendance, debt amount, and procuring electricity service are extremely important to explain the rural poverty situation. The findings based on the Participatory Assessment method confirm relatively higher poverty estimates of the rural households. Poverty assessment and working out poverty alleviation programmes should be carefully thought of taking into account of multi-dimensions of poverty that would poterntially increase income and consumption levels, improve access to rural social services, and empowerment of rural households especially headed by the female.

The Role of Molti-Purpode Co-operatives in Rural development in Sri Lanka: A Case Study of Kurunegala District

M. B. Ranathilaka, Yoshiharu Shiratake and Piyadasa Edirisuriya

Abstract:

This study was in the Kurunegala District of Sri Lanka to evaluate the activities of Multi-Purpose Co-operative Societies (MPCSs). The MPCSs had been formed in the early 20 th Century to provide many services to rural farmer. This study focused on a number of areas, where the activities of MPCSs were active, such as agricultural extensdion, purchasing and marketing, supply of agricultural inputs, supply of rural credit, including social and other activities. The survey showed that almost all MPCSs were functioning very differently to their initial objectives. Almost all MPCSs had changed their objectives and their role in agriculture development appeared to be declining fast. The survey results indicated that the services of the MPCSs had been limited to only providing credit facilities and essential food items at reasonable prices. The study concluded that if some remedial actions were not taken immediately to restore the MPCs movement in Sri Lanka, collapse of the movement would be inevitable.

Community-led Mangrove Rehabilitation: Experiences from Hua Khao Community, Songkhla, Thailand

Somsak Boromthanarat, Md. Zakit Hossain and bussabong Chaijaroenwatana

Abstract:

The engagement of communities in managing mangrove resources is critical, In Thailand years of trial and error have brought few successes, which are not well documented. In this article an experience of ‘Community-led Mangrove Rehabilitation is staged under a participatory research project implemented in Hua Khao Community of Songkhla Province, Southern Thailand. The project was accomplished by means of ‘tools’ and ‘information’ initiated within the project. A sufficient set of information was obtained through PRA techniques (extensive consultations, review of secondary information, field visits, workshops, interviews and town meetings, public awareness through mangrove ecosystem education) following an iterative process during fieldwork. The lessons learnt concern mainly the community’s capacity building in order to work with government and private sectors. The output with a consolidated framework is a holistic and integrated approach for degraded mangrove area development, which attempts to integrate socio-political and economic aspects with biophysical elements. In addition to mangrove rehabilitation, community empowerment was highlighted in order to attain capacity building, knowledge, confidence and skills for future management of mangrove resources. The resulted framework has also emphasized the importance of building the tri-sectoral (government, community and facilitator) relationship. One big difference from conventional mangrove rehabilitation is that the community-led mangrove rehabilitation project tries to bring social change along with improvement in people’s livelihood.

Brooding Management Practices of Smallholder Turkey Farmers in Imo state, Nigeria

I. C. Okoli, C. H. Nwodu, M. C. Uchegbu, and O. M. Adesope

Abstract:

Primary data were generated from field surveys conducted with the aid of questionnaires, personal interviews, field measurements and observations between 11 May and 19 August 2005 on the brooding management practices of 90 smallholder turkey farmers in Imo state, Nigeria. Seventy-five (83.33%) of the farmers brooded their poults in pens separate from the ones used for rearing, while 16.67 per cent brooded them in the same house used for rearing. Sixty (66.67%) of the farmers prepared their brooding pens and equipment at least 24 hours before the arrival of day-old poults and used kerosene stove as their source of heat, while 30 (33.33%) did so on the arrival of the poults and combined electric heater and kerosene stove brooders. Forty-five (50.00%) of the respondents used one heater for every twenty poults, while 30 (33.33%) use one for every hundred. Results on feeding practices showed that 50.00 per cent of the respondents believed that poults do not see the feed for the first few days of life and therefore visited or cared for them every hour for those first few days, while another 30 (33.33%) maintained that poults feed immediately after introduction to the feed and as such looked in on the birds 5-6 times per day. Again, 33.33 per cent each of the respondents were either teaching their poults to feed by spreading the feed on paper, using flat feeders or dipping the poults mouth into feed and water, while another 66.67 per cent cleaned feeders and drinkers on daily basis as against 33.33 per cent that clean them only when they were dirty. These results tend to suggest that there are no definite brooding practices among the smallholder turkey farmers and that brooding knowledge acquire in chicken management is probably being applied in turkey production.

Communication Strategies for Disaster Preparedness in Agriculture Sector in Bangladesh

M. A. Kashem

Abstract:

The study reveals that the highest proportion of the farmers collects information on disaster preparedness from NGO workers, friends and relatives, and UP chairman. In respect of the use of mass media, the highest proportion of the farmers opined that they receive information from the radio closely followed by television. Regarding group contact method, demonstration appeared very important. Farmers’ preferences on message demand for disaster preparedness were for information on shelter and relief during flood then hourly warning for flood and information on various aspects of agriculture before flood. Farmers’ massage demand on drought was for early warning for drought and then drought resistant varieties/ technologies, and probable diseases of animals and its remedies. Quite similar to the farmers’ views, the policymakers at the headquarters level also mentioned that agriculture knowledgeable villagers followed by respected persons in the villages, and village leaders are the most accessible communication media in the villages, and interpersonal contact followed by personal localite and mass contacts are very useful for increasing farmers’ knowledge. Regarding the use of mass media policymakers opined that radio followed by television and miking at the villages are the best methods for awareness about the disaster preparedness among the villagers. In respect of contacting rural women, the policymakers viewed that neighbors (i.e. interpersonal contact) followed by miking at the village, announcing messages in the schools and posters are the appropriate media. In order to reduce the communication constraints with rural women for disaster preparedness, the use of local female community leaders was viewed as the most important one followed by the use of local female school teachers and appointing female workers temporarily.

Carp Seed Traders in Bangladesh: Sources of livelihood and Vulnerability Resulting from Fish Seed Mortality

Mahmud Hasan and Amrit N. Bart

Abstract:

Currently there are estimated 1000,00 persons involved in carp seed trading in Bangladesh, and this sub-section of the population is considered on of the poorest, most vulnerable and least studied in the country. The aim of the study was to explore the asset holdings, income profiles and risk of the carp seed traders resulting from fish seed mortality owing to handling and transportation, and to identify the point of intervention for improvement. Livelihood assessment was conducted by baseline households (HH) survey and group discussion. The research findings reveal that the HH asset holdings were not sufficient to maintain a viable living standard. Income from carp seed trading was found to be the main source of livelihood for the traders. The risks from fish seed mortality during handling and transportation were identified as the major source of vulnerability. This study suggests that improving fish seed transport techniques and thus reducing risks may contribute to improve livelihood and poverty reduction of the carp seed traders.

Fertiliser Requirements of Morning Glory for its Higher Production in the Asian Region

Md. Mizanur Rahman, Amararatne Yakupitiyage and S. L. Ranamukhaarachchi

Abstract:

Morning glory (Ipomoea reptans L.) is a vegetable crop that has gained high popularity in the Asian region, is yet lacking information on nutrient requirements to enhance its production. Therefore, four levels of N (0.1, 0.2, 0.3 and 0.4g N pot -1), two levels of P (0.05 and 0.10 g P pot -1) and two levels of K (0.07 and 0.14 g K pot -1) were tested in a factorial experiment in pots at the Asian Institute of Technology, Bangkok, Thailand to determine the nutrient requirements for morning glory. The plant tissues were analysd at harvesting stage and found that the amounts of N, P and K removed by morning glory were 0.63 g, 0.12g and 0.68g pot -1 , respectively, These values correspond to 356 kg N, 68 kg P and 388 kg K ha-1 of a morning glory crop. These nutrients can be used to calculate fertilizer requirements following soil tests and fertilizer use efficiencies of commonly used fertilizers.

Building Sustainable Rural Development Index in Asia and the Pacific: Scoreboard on the Levels of Development of Rural Communities and Country Performance in Rural Development

Eva Benita A. Tuzon

Abstract:

The rise on the use of indexes is noticeable with the increasing ease in information technology and communication. Likewise, the indexes come like capsules to remedy or invigorate the need for synthesized accounting on the various directions, achievements and slippages, all are glued in the philosophy of stewarding universal goods and values. This need had been manifested in the strong demand of global donor communities for results-based management.

The paper takes off from the desire to establish an index that provides knowledge on the different levels of development of many rural communities, which development agencies claimed they have reached out. An index that would ultimately rank the different countries that established CIRDAP for the purpose of regional cooperation in the sphere of rural development. The envisioned RSRDI is a self-conscious report card that aims to stand face to face with the existing indexes that measure competitiveness in terms of economic performance; performance in terms of how much is contributed to the basket of global donor funds, and other critical information that pertains to development. However, its rationale is simply to be accountable on every state policy that is implemented and presumed significant to the overall framework of a sustainable rural development. The RSRDI is a scoreboard that shows not only the progress on RD country performance but indicates the levels of development of different rural communities. Building the RSRDI is a new scope for cooperation among the CIRDAP member countries.

Asia- Pacific Journal of Rural Development ( APJORD)

Vol. XVII, July 2007, No.

An Overview of Rural Development in Asia

Durga P. Paudyal

Abstract:

The rural economy, including agriculture, has remained the mainstay in the countries of Asia-Pacific region, in terms of both contribution to the national GDP and labour absorption. Over the past few decades, there has been spectacular economic progress in several CMCs. However, despite being a priority agenda of the national governments as well as the main destination of international aid donors over the past few decades, the achievements of rural development and poverty alleviation programmes have been lop-sided, and meaningful headway are yet to make in several countries. In this background, this paper attempts to examine the present state of rural development in CMCs of Asia-Pacific region and suggests some new roles of national, regional and international agencies for promoting sustainable rural development and achieving MDGs.

Factors Influencing Mobile Services Adoption in Rural India

Abhay Jain and B. S. Hundal

Abstract:

Despite severl attempts over the last few years, telecom infrastructure in rural areas is lagging behind the expected levels. There has been a phenomenal spurt in the growth of tele-density in the country, with the evolution of new wireless technologies, but the gap between the urban and rural tele-density has been increasing. Various policy initiatives are on the way to reduce this widening gap, which in turn, leaves the impression of tremendous potential for growth in the rural areas. To make the adoption and diffusion growth possible, the companies are constantly facing certain challenges in tackling rural market viz, understanding rural consumers, reaching products and services to remote rural locations and communicating with vastly heterogeneous rural audience.While mobile phone usage in rural areas is rather an unexamined genre in academic literature, this explanatory study investigates the factors influencing the rural consumer buying behaviour towards mobile phone and making choice of service providers prevailing in mobile phone markets. The data have been collected from the rural regions of Punjab, India during July to December 2005 and include 1357 respondents who have adopted mobile phones. The study concludes that rural people extremely desire the facilities and knowledge along with latest technology to make choice about mobile sets and service provider.

Adoption and diffusion of Integrated Pest Management Technology: A Case of Irrigated rice Farm in Jogjakarta Province, Indonesia

Joko Mariyono

Abstract:

The institutionalization of IPM technology in Indonesia relies on farmer-to-farmer diffusion. The study aims to analyse the adoption and diffusion of the technology at farm level. Data come from a farm survey conducted in three consecutive seasons of 2000/2001. Two villages in Moyudan sub-district of Jogjakarta Provice, where a chronic pest infestation exists, are chosen. Sixty rice farmers have been interviewed. The study shows IPM technology has been adopted by both IPM-participating and non-IPM participating farmers. There is an indication of IPM knowledge diffusion occurred in the area of study where every farmer faces the same problems of severe pest infestations.

Exploring Predictive Strengths of Stochastic Pavement Deterioration Models: A Case Study of Thailand’s Highway Network

Satirasetthavee Dussadee and Heabat Pannapa

Abstract:

Deterioration modeling is a core element in any infrastructure management system. Higher accuracy of prediction models results in better maintenance planning in terms of maintenance needs prediction strategy selection and budget allocation. This research aims at enhancing existing deterministic deterioration models used by Thailand Department of Highways, Stochastic deterioration models, namely a time-based model and a discrete-time state-based model, are proposed to overcome the limitations of deterministic models by capturing the variation and uncertainty of the deterioration rate. Predictive strengths of both models are explored in terms of their precision and confidence of deterioration models, the integration of relevant variables, and the effect of duration dependence. The results of deterioration rate prediction based on the developed models demonstrate that the time-based models are suitable for the project-level or network-level management of road networks with similar characteristics while the discrete-time state-based model is stronger in terms of condition the effects of relevant variables for Thailand road network.

Socio-Economic Study of Gender Role in Farm Production in Nasarawa State of Nigeria

S. A. Rahman, H. Ibrahim and H. Ibrahim

Abstract:

This study examines the gender role in the farm sector of Nasarawa State. Double-stage random sampling techniques were used to select a sample of 90 farm households during the cropping season of 2005. Primary data were obtained through the use of interview schedules administered to farm families. Data analysis was done using descriptive statistics, ordinary least squares regression model, productivity model and logit regression model. It was observed that women had extensive work loads of 13 hours/day and lower labour productivity compared to the men. The women seem to have lower rateof involvement in farm decisions (42.8%) and less accessible to farm resources (11.5%).

Economic Evaluation of Rice-Prawn Gher Farming System on Soil fertility for Modern Variety of Rice Production in bangladesh

Basanta Kumar Barmon, Takumi Kondo and fumio Osanami

Abstract:

The present study attempts to examine the economic evaluation of rice-prawn gher farming system on soil fertility for modern variety (MV) rice production in Bangladesh. Laboratory based experimental data and field survey data were used in the present study. To test the change in soil fertility, soils were collected before (after prawn production) and after rice production (before prawn production) and analysed in the Soil Resources Development institute (SRDI) laboratory in Khulna, Bangladesh. The findings of the study indicated that the farmers applied comparatively less chemical fertilizers in MV rice production under the rice-prawn gher farming system compared to usual year-round MV rice production. The cost of fertilizers for MV rice production was about seven times higher than MV rice production under the rice-prawn gher farming system. However, per hectare MV rice yield under farm condition was almost similar to MV rice yield under the rice-prawn gher farming system. The leftover feeds for prawn production and faeces of prawn and fishes have significant impacts on soil fertility for MV rice production. The rice-prawn gher farming is a cost-saving technology for MV rice production.

Soil Hydraulic Characterisation under Different Cropping Patterns in Sloping Agricultural Lands in Sri Lanka

A. A. Rivas, R. S. Clemente, S. L. Ranamukhaarachchi, A. Das Gupta, M. A. Zoebisch, S. Thevachandran and M. S. D. L. De Silva

Abstract:

The highlands of Sri Lanka are generally considered as agriculturally productive, and yield potentials are high. However, in recent years, most agricultural lands in the hilly areas are being over-exploited, ignoring long-term negative impacts on the soils and the environment. Different forms of cropping can also modify soil conditions which can have positive or negative consequences on the soil quality. Thus, the objectives of this study were to evaluate the effects of different cropping patterns under different cropping patterns under different terrains in the Welimada Division of the upper watershed of Sri Lanka on soil quality using selected soil hydraulic characteristic indictors, and to identify which among them provides more positive effects on soil hydraulic quality for crop growth and production. The soil hydraulic characterization conducted in the Yala (dry) and Maha (rainy) seasons in year 2004 involved measurements of infiltration, hydraulic conductivity, moisture retention characteristics, texture, and organic matter in selected zones of the Welimada watershed. Typical transects or hillslopes were selected based on varying cropping pattern and slope, and were divided into three or two field sites along the slope. Amore integrated approach of assessing soil hydraulic quality based on soil hydraulic quality based on soil hydraulic quality index was adopted to compare the hydraulic quality of soils under different cropping patterns.

Analysis of the data gathered indicated that the effects of different cropping patterns are more pronounced in the rooted subsoil layer. In general, the potato-fallow-vegetable-fallow cropping rotation was identified as the pattern which provided more positive effects on the soil hydraulic quality in the context of enhancing crop growth and production. The more agriculturally intensive irrigated lowlands, particularly the paddy-potato-vegetable rotation, showed the potential of increasing the income of farmers without adversely affecting soil hydraulic quality.

Good Governance and HRD: Case Studies of User Managed Safe Drinking Water and health Projects in India

P. Durgaprasad and P. Sivaram

Abstract:

The paper underscores the criticality of ‘Good Governance for Human Resource Development (HRD)’, even while delineating the key aspects of people centred and people-managed decentralized safe drinking water and sanitation (DWS) projects in India-a major investment in Macro-HRD interventions. Capacity building of the poor (rural) communities for enhanced absorption of development goods, services and competencies is viewed as a necessary condition. It highlights the results of three self-reliance oriented Public-Private and Civil Society partnership-based EWS projects, which hold promise for community managed good governance-based Microsystems at the grassroots level in India. Partnership initiatives like bone Char-based Community and Domestic Defluoridation Systems in Nalgonda, AP; Integrated Rural Water Supply and Environmental sanitation Project of Mysore, Karnataka; and Bal Panchayat Programme of the Institute of Health Management, Pachod, Aurangabad, Maharashtra, are shown as replicable examples and sustainable projects of solid community action in partnership with the local (Panchayat) government institutions and NGOs. The paper concludes that ‘putting the instruments of change into the hands of the development consumers’ is the most effective and proactive strategy of user-managed and empowerment-oriented sustainable development. The lessons learnt are outlined, and the distance to travel towards the goal of ‘improved overall quality of life of (rural) people’ is emphasized.

Land-use Suitability Evaluation Criteria for Precision Agriculture Adoption in a Moderately Yielding Soya bean Cropping Area in Thailand

Kishore C. Swain and H. P. W. Jayasuriya

Abstract:

A land-use suitability evaluation criteria was developed for Precision Agriculture technology adoption in developing countries using a case study conducted in moderately yielding soya bean cropping area in Thailand. Suitability maps were developed for referenced crop and soil data using GIS. The suitability criteria, comprising 12 physical and 3 economic factors revealed that 77 per cent of the total study area was suitable for soya bean crop cultivation. By assigning equally weighted factors, 86 per cent of the area was found highly potential for PA adoption with higher yield goals. The yield comparison justified the suitability classification used in selecting lands for PA adoption Suitability maps can assist farmers in selecting areas for step-by-step adoption depending on their financial capabilities or in choosing other crop option for areas not suitable for soya bean.

Asia- Pacific Journal of Rural Development ( APJORD)

Vol. XVII, December 2007, No. 2

Importance of agricultural Growth for Poverty Reduction: The Indonesian Case

Tulus Tambunan

Abstract:

Although poverty is generally recognized as a highly multidimensional phenomenon, in the Indonesian context, poverty has been mainly an agricultural or a rural phenomenon. This has of course an important policy implication for Indonesia for poverty alleviation. This study examines the importance of agricultural growth for poverty reduction in Indonesia. It shows that: (i) agriculture is still the biggest employment-generating sector in the country; (ii) the vast majority of poor families are in agriculture, consisting mainly of the marginal farmers and agricultural labourers; (iii) the decomposition of changes in poverty into main sectors shows that the output growth in agriculture appears to have the strongest effect on the change in poverty; (iv) in rural areas, increase in rice production per hectare (as the main important agricultural production in Indonesia) and agricultural nominal wage are two main important channels through which agricultural growth affects poverty, particularly in the rural areas.

Community Participation in a Local Tourism Planning Process: A Case Study of Nathon Community on Samui Island, Thailand

Kannapa Pongponrat and Soparth Pongquan

Abstract:

Community participation as a strategy for community development in this era of booming tourism has become a major economic generating tool in many developing countries including Thailand. This paper explores various aspects of community participation in local tourism development planning on Samui Islan in the South of Thailand and identifies factors associated with intensity of participation of local people in the planning process organized by the Nathon Community on Samui Island. The extent and aspects of people’s participation primarily in the decision making, implementation, and monitoring and evaluation phases were examined. The case shows how community participation was conducted and organized by the local committee during those stages of the planning process and how it could be replicated in other communities. Key factors imperative for the success of the planning and implementation of local tourism activities consist of an effective local committee, active involvement of local people at various stages of the local tourism planning process, the degree of benefits and satisfaction local people derive from their participation in tourism activity.

Determinants of Rural Land-use Change in Prasae Watershed Area of Thailand

Nareeluck Wannasai and Rajendra P. Shrestha

Abstract:

This paper analyses the land-use change in Prasae watershed area of Thailand and investigates the underlying factors using Geographic Information System(GIS) and farm-level data. Forest conversion to annual crops and subsequently to perennial crops was a typical land-use change during 1982 to 2004. The analysis suggested the variables related to land tenure, production and household resources, economic return from owned and irrigated areas, educational level, and farm income were the underlying factors of rural land-use change in the watershed area of Thailand. Hence, the government intervention to improve well-being of the rural poor while protecting the remaining forest should be sought.

Media-based Agricultural Information and Its Influence on farm Investment Decision in Michika Area of Adamawa State, Nigeria

A. O. Ani and S. A Rahman

Abstract:

Farmers could use agricultural information for productive investment decision if appropriate means of communication are accessible to them. A study of a sample of 100 randomly selected farmers in Michika Area of Adamawa State in Nigeria was conducted during the cropping season of year 2005 to examine the influence of media-based information on farm investment decisions. An investment decision model which examined two measures of access to information 9information limit and information used) and two types of mass media (electronic and print) was applied. The model revealed that information in the electronic media was significantly related to the farm investment decision and the nature of the relationship depends on how access to information is defined.

Perception and Attitude of Micro credit Borrowers towards Effectiveness of Agricultural diversification and Intensification Project in Bangladesh

Kazi Tanvir Mahmud, Zainal Abidin Mohamed, Mohd . Mansor Ismail, M. Nasir Shamsudin and David Hilton

Abstract:

Government of Bangladesh (GoB) have made an effort to provide micro credit facility to the landless and marginal farmers in order to uplift their socioeconomic condition through Agricultural Diversification and Intensification Project. This study aims to assess whether the participants were benefited or not as a result of intervention of the project. Logit model was used to examine the influence of socioeconomic variables on the dichotomous dependent variable. The logit model results indicate that variables like year of schooling, number of training received by the borrowers, mobility of the borrowers and household size of the borrowers were significantly related with the dependent variable borrowers’ betterment.

Herbal Medicine as Sustainable Livelihood: A Case of Irula Tribal Women Welfare Society from Rural India

E. V. Prakash Rao

Abstract:

Medicinal plants are an important area that requires the attention of development administration, for working out suitable strategies and for strengthening rural livelihoods. A large number of people, especially the poor, in different regions including vast tracts of tribal belts depend primarily on collection, processing and commercialization of medicinal plants for their livelihood support. It is believed that there is immense scope for employment generation in this important sector, and hence it needs to be properly promoted without much scope for external exploitation by middlemen. It is also necessary that they need to be commercialized and expand the area of cultivation of these important resources o enhance the production base. These plant species are also considered as endangered species, which need to be preserved and regenerated for the well-being of rural people especially tribal. This particular study is based on a tribal women welfare society spreading across 56 tribal habitations in Tamil Nadu State of India.

Adoption Behaviour of Mango-growers towards Pesticides in bangladesh

M. M. I. Shah, M. G. Mostafa, and M. M. Hossain

Abstract:

The study was attempted to determine: i) the extent of adoption of pesticides in mango cultivation; and ii) the relationships of each of the selected characteristics of the mango-growers with their adoption behaviour of pesticides in cultivating mango. The study was conducted in Sadar Upazila of Nawabganj District and all the mango-growers of this domain were considered population. A sample of 100 mango-growers was selected at random from 12 villages of the selected area. Data were collected from the sample during 10 August to 19 September 2001. The findings revealed that majority (55%) of the mango-growers had ‘very low adoption’ while 28 per cent of them have ‘low adoption’ and the rest was not found applying pesticides to their mango plants. Only a little proportion (13-23%) of the mango-growers used pesticides as per recommended dose. Family income and innovativeness of the growers were found to have significant positive association with their adoption behaviour to the pesticides.

Empowering Rural Women through Skill Formation Training-An Empirical Study os Swarnajayanti Gram Swarojgar Yojana in India

Samiran Sarangi and Debabrata Lahiri

Abstract:

Skill formation on non-farm enterprises has been a major component in the Swarnajayanti Gram Swaorjgar Yojana (SGSY). Training on various aspects has been provided to the Swarojgaries (members of the self-help groups mainly women) at the Community Development Block and also at the Gram Panchayat levels. The training programmes suffer from a number of problems ranging from coverage among Swarojgaries, duration, efficacy of such training programmes. The large number of training programmes only indicates that they have ‘supply-driven and not demand-driven’. Nearly fifty per cent of the Swarojgaris had not been interested in obtaining any training as they may have found that these would not be economically viable. Most of the training programmes have been of farm type rather than of non-farm type. Further, problems encountered after obtaining the training has not been taken into account.